This article's introduction section may not adequately summarize its contents. To comply with Wikipedia's lead section guidelines, please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points. (September 2009)

Tuareg language(s)
Tamasheq, Tamajaq, Tamahaq
Spoken in	Algeria  Burkina Faso  Libya  Mali  Niger
Region	Sahara
Total speakers	1.2 million (Ethnologue)
Language family	Afro-Asiatic Berber languages Tuareg language(s)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	None
ISO 639-2	tmh
ISO 639-3	variously: tmh – Tamashaq (generic) thv – Tahaggart Tamahaq taq – Tamasheq ttq – Tawallammat Tamajaq thz – Tayart Tamajeq
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

Tuareg (or Tamasheq/Tamajaq/Tamahaq) is a Berber language or family of closely related languages spoken by the Tuareg, in many parts of Mali, Niger, Algeria, Libya and Burkina Faso, with a few speakers, the Kinnin, in Chad.^[1]

[edit] Description

Other Berber languages and Tamashaq are quite mutually comprehensible^{[citation needed]}, and are commonly regarded as a single language (as for instance by Karl Prasse); they are distinguished mainly by a few sound shifts (notably affecting the pronunciation of original z and h). They are unusually conservative in some respects; they retain two short vowels where northern Berber languages have one or none, and have a much lower proportion of Arabic loanwords than most Berber languages. They are traditionally written in the indigenous Tifinagh alphabet; however, the Arabic alphabet is commonly used in some areas (and has been since medieval times), while the Latin alphabet is official in Mali and Niger.

[edit] Dialects

• Tudalt
• Tadraq

[edit] Orthography

The Tuareg languages may be written in the Latin alphabet, the Arabic script, or Tifinagh. The Malian national literacy program DNAFLA has established a standard for the Latin alphabet, which is used with modifications in Prasse's Lexique and the government literacy program in Burkina, while in Niger a different system was used. There is also some variation in Tifinagh and in the Arabic script.^[2]

The Arabic script is mostly in use by tribes more involved in Islamic learning, and little is known about its conventions.^[3]

Tifinagh usage is restricted mainly to writing magical formulae, writing on palms when silence is required, and recently letter-writing.^[4]

Representative alphabets for Tuareg (consonants)^[5]

DNAFLA	Tifinagh	Arabic
b		ب
d		د
ḍ		ض
f		ف
g		ݣ
j		ﭺ
ɣ		ﻍ
h		ﻩ
k		ک
l		ﻝ
m		ﻡ
n		ن
q		ﻕ
r		ﺭ
s		ﺱ‎
ṣ		ﺹ
š		ﺵ‎
t		ﺕ
ṭ		ﻁ
w		ﻭ
x		ﺥ
y		ﻱ
z	or	ﺯ
ẓ	or	ﻅ
ž	or	ﺝ
(ḥ)		ﺡ
(ç)		ﻉ

The DNAFLA system is a somewhat morphophonemic orthography, not indicating initial vowel shortening, always writing the directional particle as < dd>, and not indication all assimilations (e.g. <Tămašăɣt> for [tămašăq]).^[6]

In Burkina Faso the emphatics are denoted by "hooked" letters, as in Fula, e.g. <ɗ ƭ>.^[7]

[edit] Phonology

[edit] Vowels

The vowel system includes 5 long vowels, /a, e, i, o, u/, "emphatic" versions of /e, o/, and two short vowels, /ə, ă/.^[8]. Karl Prasse argues that /e/ and /o/ generally derive from /i/ and /u/, while comparative evidence shows that /ə/ derives from a merger of proto-Berber */ĭ/ and */ŭ/.

Sudlow classes the "semivowels" /w, j/ with the vowels, and notes the following possible diphthongs: /əw/ (>[u]), /ăw/, /aw/, /ew/, /iw/, /ow/, /uw/, /əj/ (>[i]), /ăj/, /aj/, /ej/, /ij/, /oj/, /uj/.^[9]

Before emphatics, vowels lower, turning /ə/ into [ă], /e, i/ into "emphatic" [e], and /u, o/ into "emphatic" [o], with some dialectual variation (with the realizations of /i, u/ "less open" than /e, o/).^[10]

[edit] Consonants

The consonant inventory largely resembles Arabic: differentiated voicing; uvulars, phyangeals (traditionally referred to as emphatics) /tˤ/, /lˤ/, /sˤ/, /dˤ/, /zˤ/; requiring the pharynx muscles to contract and influencing the pronunciation of the following vowel (although /lˤ, sˤ/ only occur in Arabic loans and /lˤ/ is rare).^[14].

/ŋ/ is rare, /ʒ/ is rare in Tadraq, and /ħ, ʕ/ are only used in Arabic words in the Tanəsləmt dialect (most Tamasheq replace them with /x, ɣ/ respectively).^[11]

The glottal stop is non-phonemic. It occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words to fill the place of the initial consonant in the syllable structure (see below), although if the words is preceded by a word ending in a consonant, it makes a liason instead. Phrase-final /a/ is also followed by a phonetic glottal stop.^[10]

Gemination is contrastive.^[15] Normally /ɣɣ/ becomes [qq], /ww/ becomes [gg], and /dˤdˤ/ becomes [tˤtˤ].^[15] /q/ and /tˤ are (with a few exceptions) always geminate. In addition, in Tadraq /g/ is usually always geminate, but in Tudalt singleton /g/ may occur.^[15]

Voicing assimilation occurs, with the first consonant taking the voicing of the second (e.g. /edˤkăr/>[etˤkăr]).^[16]

Cluster reduction turns word/morpheme-final /-ɣt, -ɣk/ into [-qq] and /-kt, -ɟt, -gt/ into /-kk/ (e.g. /tămaʃăɣt/>[tămaʃăq] 'Tamasheq'^[17]).^[18]

[edit] Phonotactics

Syllable structure is CV(C)(C), including glottal stops (see above).^[10]

[edit] Suprasegmentals

Contrastive stress may occur in the stative aspect of verbs.^[8]

[edit] Dialectal differences

Different dialects have slightly different consonant inventories. Some of these differences can be diachronically accounted for. For example, Proto-Berber *h is mostly lost in Ayer Tuareg, while it is maintained in almost every position in Mali Tuareg. The Iwellemmeden and Ahaggar Tuareg dialects are midway between these positions^[19]. The Proto-Berber consonant *z comes out differently in different dialects, a development that is to some degree reflected in the dialect names. It is realized as h in Tamahaq (Tahaggart), as š in Tamasheq and as simple z in the Tamajaq dialects Tawallammat and Tayart. In the latter two, *z is realised as ž before palatal vowels, explaining the form Tamajaq. In Tawallammat and especially Tayart, this kind of palatalization actually does not confine itself to z. In these dialects, dentals in general are palatalized before /i/ and /j/. For example, tidət is pronounced tidʲət in Tayart.^[20]

Other differences can easily be traced back to borrowing. For example, the Arabic pharyngeals ħ and ʕ have been borrowed along with Arabic loanwords by dialects specialized in Islamic (Maraboutic) learning. Other dialects substitute ħ and ʕ respectively with x and ɣ.

[edit] Grammar

The basic word order in Tuareg is Verb Subject Object. Verbs can be grouped into 19 morphological classes; some of these classes can be defined semantically. Verbs carry information on the subject of the sentence in the form of pronominal marking. No simple adjectives exist in the Tuareg languages; adjectival concepts are expressed using a relative verb form traditionally called 'participle'. The Tuareg languages have very heavily influenced Northern Songhay languages such as Tasawaq, whose speakers are culturally Tuareg but speak Songhay varieties; this influence includes points of phonology and sometimes grammar as well as extensive loanwords.

[edit] Syntax

Tamasheq prefers VSO order; however it contains topic-comment structure (like in Japanese), allowing the emphasized concept to be placed first, be it the subject or object, the latter giving an effect somewhat like the English passive.^[21] Sudlow uses the following examples, all expressing the concept “Men don’t cook porridge” (e denotes Sudlow’s schwa):

Again like Japanese, the “pronoun/particle ‘a’ is used with a following relative clause to bring a noun in a phrase to the beginning for emphasis,” a structure which can be used to emphasize even objects of prepositions^[22]. Sudlow’s example (s denotes voiceless palato-alveolar fricative):

The indirect object marker takes the form i/y in Tudalt and e/y in Tadraq.^[23]

[edit] Morphology

As a root-and-pattern, or templatic language, triliteral roots (three-consonant bases) are the most common in Tamasheq. Niels and Regula Christiansen use the root k-t-b (to write) to demonstrate past completed aspect conjugation:

The verbal correspondence with Japanese continues with the use of aspect; Tamasheq uses four, as delineated by Sudlow:

1. Perfective: complete actions
2. Stative: "lasting states as the ongoing results of a completed action."
3. Imperfective: future or possible actions, "often used following a verb expressing emotion, decision or thought," it can be marked with "'ad'" (shortened to "'a-'" with prepositions).
4. Cursive: ongoing actions, often habitual ones.

Commands are expressed in the imperative mood, which tends to be a form of the imperfective aspect, unless the action is to be repeated or continued, in which case the cursive aspect is preferred^[27].

[edit] Subclassification

[edit] Tuareg languages

• Northern
  • Tamahaq - Language of the Kel Ahaggar, and Kel Ajjer spoken in Algeria and in the north of Niger by a large saharan population. Also known as Tahaggart.
• Southern
  • Tamasheq - Language of the Kel Adrar (also known as Adagh or Ifoghas), spoken in Mali by approximately 270 000 people.
  • Tayart Tamajaq language - Language of the Kel Ayer (sometimes spelled Aïr), spoken in Niger by approximately 250 000 people.
  • Tawallammat Tamajaq language - Language of the Iwellemmeden, spoken in Mali and Niger by approximately 670 000 people. The term Iwellemmeden (the name of the people) is sometimes used to denote the language.
  • Tetserret or Shinsert or Tin Sirt (means the language of Sirt, now in modern Libya, this dialect is spoken mainly by the Ait-Awari group, this community live in the Akoubounou commune, Niger. This Tuareg dialect contains vocabulary similar to different Berber languages in North-Africa. Example: Afagan (man) like in Morocco Tamazight. Aiddid (goatskin container for water) like in Ghadames Berber dialect. Awdosh (ox) like in Mauritania Hassaniya language.

[edit] Further reading

This article's external links may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links. (September 2009)

[edit] Bibliographies

• Bougchiche, Lamara. (1997) Langues et litteratures berberes des origines a nos jours. Bibliographie internationale et sytematique. Paris: Ibis Press.
• Chaker, Salem, ed. (1988) Etudes touaregues. Bilan des recherches en sciences sociales. Travaux et Documents de i.R.E.M.A.M. no. 5. Aix-en-Provence: IREMAM / LAPMO.
• Leupen, A.H.A. (1978) Bibliographie des populations touaregues: Sahara et Soudan centraux. Leiden: Afrika Studiecentrum.

[edit] Dictionaries

Page 247 of the 1951 Dictionnaire Touareg-Français, showcasing De Foucauld's meticulous handwriting accompanied by detailed illustrations of tasdest 'tent-pole' and other tent-building terms of the Kel Ahaggar.

• Charles de Foucauld (1951-1952) Dictionnaire touareg-francais. 4 vol. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale de France. [posthumous facsimile publication (author dec. 1916); dialect of Hoggar, southern Algeria]
• Jeffrey Heath (2006) Dictionnaire tamachek - anglais - français. Paris: Karthala. [covers dialects of northern Mali]
• Motylinski, A. (1908). Grammaire, dialogues et dictionnaire touaregs. Alger: P. Fontana.
• Prasse, Karl G., Alojaly, Ghoubeid, and Mohamed, Ghabdouane (2003) Dictionnaire touareg-francais (Niger). 2nd edition revised; 2 vol. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen. [1st edition 1998; covers two dialects of the northern Republic of Niger]

[edit] Grammars

• Christiansen, Niels, and Regula. "Some verb morphology features of Tadaksahak ." SIL Electronic Working Papers. 2002. SIL International. 2 December 2007 <http://www.sil.org/silewp/yearindex.asp?year=2002>.
• Hanoteau, A. (1896) Essai de grammaire de la langue tamachek' : renfermant les principes du langage parlé par les Imouchar' ou Touareg. Alger: A. Jourdan.
• Galand, Lionel. (1974) 'Introduction grammaticale'. In: Petites Soeurs de Jesus, Contes touaregs de l'Air (Paris: SELAF), pp. 15-41.
• Heath, Jeffrey. 2005. Grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali). (Mouton Grammar Series.) the Hague: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Prasse, Karl G. (1973) Manuel de grammaire touaregue (tahaggart). 4 vol. Copenhagen.
• Sudlow, David. (2001). The Tamasheq of North-East Burkina Faso. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.

[edit] Texts

• Ag Erless, Mohamed (1999) "Il ný a qu'un soleil sur terre". Contes, proverbes et devinettes des Touaregs Kel-Adagh. Aix-en-Provence: IREMAM.
• Aghali-Zakara, Mohamed & Jeannine Drouin (1979) Traditions touarègues nigériennes. Paris: L'Harmattan.
• Albaka, Moussa & Dominique Casajus (1992) Poésies et chant touaregs de l'Ayr. Tandis qu'ils dorment tous, je dis mon chant d'amour. Paris: L'Harmattan.
• Alojaly, Ghoubeïd (1975) Ǎttarikh ən-Kəl-Dənnəg - Histoire des Kel-Denneg. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
• Casajus, Dominique (1985) Peau d'Âne et autres contes touaregs. Paris: L'Harmattan.
• Chaker, Salem & Jélène Claudot & Marceau Gast, eds. (1984) Textes touaregs en prose de Charles de Foucaould et. A. de Calassanto-Motylinski. Aix-en-Provence: Édisud.
• Chants touaregs. Recueillis et traduits par Charles de Foucauld. Paris, Albin Michel, 1997
• Foucauld, Charles de (1925) Poésies touarègues. Dialecte de l'Ahaggar. Paris: Leroux.
• Lettres au marabout. Messages touaregs au Père de Foucauld. Paris, Belin, 1999
• Heath, Jeffrey (2005) Tamashek Texts from Timbuktu and Kidal. Berber Linguistics Series. Cologne: Koeppe Verlag
• Louali-Raynal, Naïma & Nadine Decourt & Ramada Elghamis (1997) Littérature orale touarègue. Contes et proverbes. Paris: L'Harmattan.
• Mohamed, Ghabdouane & Karl-G. Prasse (1989) Poèmes touaréges de l'Ayr. 2 vol. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
• Mohamed, Ghabdouane & Karl-G. Prasse (2003) əlqissǎt ən-təməddurt-in - Le récit de ma vie. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.
• Nicolaisen, Johannes, and Ida Nicolaisen. The Pastoral Tuareg: Ecology, Culture, and Society. Vol. 1,2. New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc, 1997. 2 vols.
• Nicolas, Francis (1944) Folklore Twareg. Poésies et Chansons de l'Azawarh. BIFAN VI, 1-4, p. 1-463.

[edit] Linguistic topics

• Cohen, David (1993) 'Racines'. In: Drouin & Roth, eds. À la croisée des études libyco-berbères. Mélanges offerts à Paulette Galand-Pernet et Lionel Galand (Paris: Geuthner), 161-175.
• Kossmann, Maarten (1999) Essai sur la phonologie du proto-berbère. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
• Prasse, Karl G. (1969) A propos de l'origine de h touareg (tahaggart). Copenhagen.

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

• Christiansen, Niels and Regula. 2002. Some verb morphology features of Tadaksahak . SIL Electronic Working Papers 2002-005. Dallas: SIL International. Online. URL: http://www.sil.org/silewp/abstract.asp?ref=2002-005.
• Heath, Jeffrey (2005). A grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 745. ISBN 3110184842. 
• Sudlow, David. (2001). The Tamasheq of North-East Burkina Faso. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.

[edit] External links

• Ethnologue report for Tamasheq
• Linguistlist - tree for Tamasheq