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In Ancient Roman warfare, the testudo or tortoise formation was a formation used commonly by the Roman Legions during battles, particularly sieges. Testudo is the Latin word for "tortoise". The Greek term for this formation is "chelone" and during the Byzantine era, it seems to have evolved to what military manuals of the era call the "foulkon".

[edit] Description

The testudo formation in a Roman military reenactment.

In the testudo formation, the men would deploy very densely and position their shields at the sides (rather than by the grip behind the umbo). The first row of men, possibly excluding the men on the flanks^{[citation needed]}, would hold their shields from about the height of their shins to their eyes, so as to cover the formation's front. The shields would be held in such a way that they presented a shieldwall to all sides. The men in the back ranks would place their shields over their heads to protect the formation from above, balancing the shields on their helmets, overlapping them. If necessary, the legionaries on the sides and rear of the formation could stand sideways or backwards with shields held as the front rows, so as to protect the formation's sides and rear.

Plutarch describes this formation as used by Mark Antony during his invasion of Parthia in 36 BC:

"Then the shield-bearers wheeled round and enclosed the light-armed troops within their ranks, dropped down to one knee, and held their shields out as a defensive barrier. The men behind them held their shields over the heads of the first rank, while the third rank did the same for the second rank. The resulting shape, which is a remarkable sight, looks very like a roof, and is the surest protection against arrows, which just glance off it."^[1]

Cassius Dio writes about the testudo when describing the campaign of Mark Antony in 36 B.C. : "this testudo and the way in which it is formed are as follows. The Baggage animals, the light-armed troops, and the cavalry are placed in the center of the army. the heavy-armed troops who use the oblong, curved and cylindrical shields are drawn up around the outside, making a rectangular figure, and, facing outward and holding their arms at the ready, they enclose the rest. the others who have flat shields, form a compact body in the center and raise their shields over the heads of all the others, so that nothing but shields can be seen in every part of the phalanx alike and all the men by the density of the formation are under shelter from missiles. Indeed, it is so marvelously strong that men can walk upon it and whenever they come to a narrow ravine, even horses and vehicles can be driven over it. "

Frontinus also comments on the testudo's use by Mark Anthony.^[2]

[edit] Tactical Analysis

The testudo was used to protect soldiers from all types of missiles. It could be formed by immobile troops and troops on the march. The primary drawback to the formation was that, because of its density, the men found it more difficult to fight in hand-to-hand combat. As "foulkon," it played a great role in the tactics employed by the Byzantines against their eastern enemies.

[edit] See also

• Roman infantry tactics

[edit] References

1. ^ Plutarch: Antony, c. 45, quoted in Plutarch, Roman Lives, ed. Robin Waterfield ISBN 9780192825025
2. ^ Frontinus, Stratagems, II.iii.15

2. Dio Cassius , Roman History Book 49 , 30, ed. Loeb Clasical Library ISBN 0674-99091-9

[edit] Bibliography

• Cowan, Ross, Roman Battle Tactics 109BC - AD313 (Osprey 2007)
• Rance, Philip, 'The Fulcum, the Late Roman and Byzantine Testudo: the Germanization of Roman Infantry Tactics?' in Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 44 (2004) pp. 265–326: http://www.duke.edu/web/classics/grbs/FTexts/44/Rance2.pdf.
• Plutarch, Roman Lives, ed. Robin Waterfield ISBN 9780192825025[1]
• Dio Cassius , Roman History Book 49 , 30 ed. Loeb Clasical Library ISBN 0674-99091-9

[edit] Gallery

			Rendered on Trajan's Column
Reenactment