Strategies and techniques for achieving sustainability in fisheries combine theoretical disciplines, such as the population dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding overfishing through techniques such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for appropriate conservation law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries through skilful interventions, recognition of the real economics involved in harvesting marine ecosystems, educating stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs for sustainable fisheries.

The concern about sustainability in fisheries is not so much that important fish species will be fished to extinction, but rather that heavy fishing pressures, such as overexploitation and growth or recruitment overfishing, will result in the loss of significant potential yield; that stock components will erode to the point where the stock structure loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations; that ecosystems and their economic infrastructures will cycle between periods of rebuilding, losing productivity during each cycle; and that changes will occur in the trophic balance within ecosystems ("fishing down the web").^[1]

Contents 1 Overview 2 Traditional management of fisheries 3 Defining sustainability 4 Protecting biodiversity 5 Social sustainability 6 Overfishing 7 Incidental catch 8 Shifting environmental baselines 9 Habitat modification 10 Changing the ecosystem balance 11 Climate change 12 Ocean pollution 13 Diseases and toxins 14 Fisheries management 15 Need for adequate data 16 Marine protected areas 17 Ecosystem based fisheries 18 Fish farming 19 Laws and treaties 20 Organizations and education 21 Postscript 22 See also 23 Notes 24 References 25 External links

[edit] Overview

This article is concerned, not so much with documenting the many unsustainable and destructive fishing practices, but with documenting the views of some fisheries scientists and marine conservationists about what is possible in the direction of sustainable fisheries. While fishery ecosystems, on the face of it, are just a subset of the wider marine environment, the fisheries scientists, Daniel Pauly and Dave Preikshot, comment:

Sustainable management of fisheries cannot be achieved without an acceptance that the long-term goals of fisheries management are the same as those of environmental conservation^[2]

[edit] Traditional management of fisheries

Traditionally, fisheries management, and the science underpinning it, focused on the population dynamics of single commercial fish species, and ignored the wider ecosystem complexities associated with the species, as well as the underlying conservation issues.^[2] Historically, fisheries stock assessment scientists usually worked in government laboratories and considered their work was in the service of the fishing industry. In this way, these scientists dismissed conservation issues and distanced themselves from the scientists and the science that raised the issues. This happened, even though many commercial fish stocks seriously deteriorated, and even though many governments were signaturies to binding agreements to conserve marine biodiversity.^[2]

According to Daniel Pauly and Dave Preikshot, this traditional attitude towards conservation was based on two pathologies: the first pathology was "the narrow focus on target populations and the corresponding failure to account for ecosystem effects leading to declines of species abundance and diversity", and the second pathology was perceiving the fishing industry as "the sole legitimate user, in effect the owner, of marine living resources."^[2]

[edit] Defining sustainability

The notion of sustainable development is sometimes regarded as an unattainable, even illogical notion because development inevitably depletes and degrades the environment.^[3]

Ray Hilborn, of the University of Washington, distinguishes three ways of defining a sustainable fishery.

• Long term constant yield is the idea that, when undisturbed, nature establishes a steady state that changes little over time. If fishing is done properly, at about the level of maximum sustainable yield, then nature will also adjust and settle down to a new steady state, with the harvest occurring sustainably in a stable and predictable way. However, this is a naive view. Such constancy is not an attribute of marine ecosystems, and this approach fails. It is entirely natural for stock abundance to fluctuate, and the potential yield of fish stocks changes with naturally occurring short and long term variations.^[1]

• Preserving intergenerational equity acknowledges that natural fluctuations occur, and regards as unsustainable practices which would result in a deterioration of the genetic structure, or habitat loss, or depletion of stock levels to the point where it requires several generations for rebuilding. Providing the stock can be rebuild within one generation, overfishing may be economically foolish, but it is not unsustainable. This is currently a widely accepted definition.^[1]

• Maintaining a biological, social and economic system is a perspective which considers the health of the human ecosystem as well as the marine ecosystem. A mixed-species fishery which rotates its fishing effort can deplete individual stocks and still be sustainable so long as the ecosystem retains its intrinsic integrity. Such a definition might consider as sustainable fishing practices that lead to the reduction and possible extinction of some members of the ecosystem.^[1]

[edit] Protecting biodiversity

Reconciling fisheries with conservation

At the Fourth World Fisheries Congress in 2004, Daniel Pauly asked, "How can fisheries science and conservation biology achieve a reconciliation?", and answered his own question, "By accepting each other’s essentials: that fishing should remain a viable occupation; and that aquatic ecosystems and their biodiversity are allowed to persist."^[4]

[edit] Social sustainability

The fisheries and aquaculture sectors are, directly or indirectly, a source of livelihood for over 500 million people, mostly in developing countries.^[5] While it is important to protect biodiversity, people also need seafood to ensure food security.^[6]

Taking account of social sustainability can conflict with the need to protect biodiversity. A fishery is socially sustainable if the fishery ecosystem maintains the ability to deliver products the social system can use. From the social point of view, major species shifts within the ecosystem could be acceptable as long as the new species can be properly utilised.^[1] There is nothing new in this; humans have been operating such regimes for thousands of years, transforming many ecosystem, species of which have been depleted or driven to extinction.^[7]

According to Hilborn, the "loss of some species, and indeed transformation of the ecosystem is not incompatible with sustainable harvests."^[1] For example, in recent years, barndoor skates have been caught as bycatch in the western Atlantic. Their numbers have severely declined and they will probably go extinct if these catch rates continue.^[8] Even if the barndoor skate goes extinct, and even if there is a consequent change in the ecosystem, there could still be long term sustainable fishing of the commercially important species.^[1]

To a great extent, sustainability is like good art, it is hard to describe but we know it when we see it. – Ray Hilborn^[1]

[edit] Overfishing

There is a misconception that overfishing is always unsustainable. According to Hilborn, overfishing can be "a misallocation of societies resources", but it does not necessarily threaten conservation or sustainability.^[1]"

Overfishing is traditionally defined as fishing so hard that the yield from a stock is less that it would be if the fishing pressure were reduced.^[1] For example, Pacific salmon are usually managed by trying to determine how many spawning salmon are needed each generation to produce the maximum harvestable surplus. The number allowed to spawn is called the escapement. The optimum escapement is the escapement needed to produce the maximum harvestable surplus. For optimal management, the number of spawners each year is the optimum escapement. If the fishery was managed so the escapement was only half the optimum, then overfishing will occur, because the harvest would be smaller than it need be. But this is still sustainable fishing, which could continue indefinitely at its reduced stock numbers and yield. There is a wide range of escapement sizes that present no threat that the stock might collapse or that the stock structure might erode.^[1]

On the other hand, overfishing can be a predecessor to severe stock depletion and fishery collapse.^[9] Hilborn points out that this syndrome, of continuing to exert fishing pressure while biological production decreases, leading eventually to stock collapse and failure of the fishery, is largely "the product of institutional failure."^[1]

[edit] Incidental catch

^[2]

[edit] Shifting environmental baselines

• Shifting baseline
• Shifting Environmental Baselines

[edit] Habitat modification

Ecosystem change due to human interference.

Nearly all the world’s continental shelves, and large areas of continental slopes, underwater ridges, and seamounts, have had heavy bottom trawls and dredges repeatedly dragged over their surfaces. For fifty years, governments and organizations, such as the Asian Development Bank, have encouraged fishing industries to develop trawler fleets. Repeated bottom trawling and dredging literally flattens diversity in the benthic habitat, and the associated communities are radically changed.^[10]

[edit] Changing the ecosystem balance

Fishing down the marine web.

Since 1950, 90 percent of 25 species of big predator fish have gone.

• How we are emptying our seas The Sunday Times, May 10, 2009.
• Pauly, Daniel (2004) Reconciling Fisheries with Conservation: the Challenge of Managing Aquatic Ecosystems Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.

[edit] Climate change

Rising ocean temperatures^[12] and ocean acidification^[13] are radically altering aquatic ecosystems. Climate change is modifying fish distribution^[14] and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture, on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries, and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon (biological pump). The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change, while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland (freshwater) fisheries and aquaculture.

[edit] Ocean pollution

A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been impacted by the human species, and that 41 percent of the oceans has been fouled with human polluted runoff, overfishing, and other abuses.^[16] Pollution is a problem which is not easy to fix, because the sources of pollution are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) released a report mapping the myriad impacts of stressors such as climate change, pollution, exotic species, and over-exploitation of resources on the world ocean. The report shows at least 75 percent of the world's key fishing grounds may be affected.

• Census of Marine Life — the largest oceanographic project in history.

• Nellemann, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. (Eds). February 2008. In Dead Water: Merging of climate change with pollution, over-harvest, and infestations in the world’s fishing grounds. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, Norway. Available at http://www.unep.org/pdf/InDeadWater_LR.pdf Off-site Link

• The New York Times discusses three studies that document the degradation of the world ocean, the decline of marine ecosystems and the collapse of important fish species. The New York Times, 9 March 2008 Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/opinion/09sun2.html?ref=todayspaper Off-site Link

[edit] Diseases and toxins

Is eating fish necessarily better than eating other food? Large predator fish contain significant amounts of mercury, a neurotoxin which can affect foetal development, memory, the mental ability to focus, and give tremors.

[edit] Fisheries management

Fisheries management draws on fisheries science in order to find ways to protect fishery resources so sustainable exploitation is possible. Modern fisheries management is often referred to as a governmental system of appropriate management rules based on defined objectives and a mix of management means to implement the rules, which are put in place by a system of monitoring control and surveillance.

Global Fisheries Management

• Hilborn, R (2007) "Managing fisheries is managing people: what has been learned?" Fish and Fisheries, 8:285–296.
• Pauly, D. (2007). Off-site Link "The Sea Around Us Project: Documenting and Communicating Global Fisheries Impacts on Marine Ecosystems." Ambio, 36(4): 290-295.
• Sumaila, U.R., Khan, A., Watson, R., Munro, G., Zeller, D., Baron, N. and Pauly, D. (2007). "The World Trade Organization and global fisheries sustainability." Fisheries Research, 88: 1—4.

Ideas and rules

The American economist Paul Romer believes sustainable growth is possible providing the right ideas (technology) are combined with the right rules. He believes that rather than hectoring people about our predicament, we should think our way out of it by finding the right creative ideas, and coupling them with appropriate rules governing the way the ideas are implemented. There has been no lack of innovative ideas about how to harvest fish. He characterises the failures of fisheries management as primarily failures to apply appropriate rules.^[17][18]

Fishing Subsidies

Government subsidies operate in many of the world fisheries. Subsidisies on the the costs of operating fishing vessels allow European and Asian fishing fleets to fish in distant waters, such as West African waters. Many fisheries experts believe fishing subsidies should be eliminated and that fishing incentives should be restructured globally to help struggling fisheries recover.^[19]

• Clark C, Munro G and Sumaila UR (2004) Subsidies, Decommissioning Schemes and Effective Fisheries Management Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.

Economics

Another focus of conservationists is on curtailing human activities that are detrimental to either marine ecosystems or species through policy, techniques such as fishing quotas, like those set up by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, or laws such as those listed below. Recognizing the economics involved in human use of marine ecosystems is key, as is education of the public about conservation issues.

• Sumaila UR (2004) Valuation and the reconciliation of fisheries with conservation Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.

Sustainable Fisheries Certification

A promising direction is the independent certification programs for sustainable fisheries conducted by organisations such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea. These programs work at raising consumer awareness and insight into the nature of their seafood purchases

Coastal waters

International waters

• Sixty-nine nations adopt guidelines to protect fish species AFP, September 3, 2008.

[edit] Need for adequate data

One of the major impediments to the rational control of marine resources is a deficiency of data. According to fisheries scientist Milo Adkison (2007), the primary limitation in fisheries management decisions is the absence of quality data. Fisheries management decisions are often based on population models, but the models need quality data to be effective. Scientists and fishery managers would be better served with simpler modelling analyses and improved data.^[20]

[edit] Marine protected areas

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as with marine protected areas (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas.

Marine life is not evenly distributed in the oceans. Most of the really valuable ecosystems inhabit relatively shallow coastal waters, above or near the continental shelf, where the sunlit waters are often nutrient rich from land runoff or upwellings at the continental edge, allowing photosynthesis to take place. In the 1970s, for reasons more to do with drilling for oil than with fishing, the U.S. extended their national jurisdiction, which was out to 12 miles from the coast, to 200 miles. This made huge areas of continental shelf part of their national territory. Other nations immediately did the same, extending national controls to what became known as the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). This move has had many implications for fisheries conservation, since it means that large areas of the world's most productive maritime ecosystems are now under national jurisdictions, opening possibilities for protecting these ecosystems by passing appropriate national laws.

Daniel Pauly characterises marine protected areas as "a conservation tool of revolutionary importance that is being incorporated into the fisheries mainstream."^[2] The Pew Charitable Trusts have funded various initiatives aimed at encouraging the development of MPAs and other ocean conservation measures.^[21]

• Roberts, Callum (2007) The Unnatural History of the Sea: The Past and Future of Humanity and Fishing Island Press. ISBN 978-1856752947
• Protecting Sea Life: Marine Reserves Callum Roberts. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
• Seas of Plenty The Wildlife Trusts.
• Wood, L. J. (2007). MPA Global: A database of the world's marine protected areas. Sea Around Us Project, UNEP-WCMC & WWF. Available at www.mpaglobal.org. Off-site Link MPA News, March 2008
• Marine Life Protection Act

[edit] Ecosystem based fisheries

According to marine ecologist Chris Frid, the fishing industry has been keen to identify pollution and global warming as the causes of unprecedented low fish levels in recent years. But it is clear that overfishing has also altered the way the ecosystem works. "Everybody would like to see the rebuilding of fish stocks and this can only be achieved if we understand all of the influences, human and natural, on fish dynamics.” Frid adds: “Fish communities can be altered in a number of ways, for example they can decrease if particular sized individuals of a species are targeted, as this affects predator and prey dynamics. Fishing, however, is not the sole perpetrator of changes to marine life - pollution is another example [...] No one factor operates in isolation and components of the ecosystem respond differently to each individual factor."^[22]

The traditional approach to fisheries science and management has been to focus on a single species. This can be contrasted with the ecosystem-based approach. Ecosystem-based fishery concepts have existed for some years and have been implemented in some regions. In a recent (2007) effort to "stimulate much needed discussion" and "clarify the essential components" of ecosystem-based fisheries science, a group of scientists have offered the following ten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries scientists^[23]

“

Keep a perspective that is holistic, risk-adverse and adaptive. Maintain an “old growth” structure in fish populations, since big, old and fat female fish have been shown to be the best spawners, but are also susceptible to overfishing. Characterize and maintain the natural spatial structure of fish stocks, so that management boundaries match natural boundaries in the sea. Monitor and maintain seafloor habitats to make sure fish have food and shelter. Maintain resilient ecosystems that are able to withstand occasional shocks. Identify and maintain critical food-web connections, including predators and forage species. Adapt to ecosystem changes through time, both short-term and on longer cycles of decades or centuries, including global climate change. Account for evolutionary changes caused by fishing, which tends to remove large, older fish. Include the actions of humans and their social and economic systems in all ecological equations.

”

• Christensen, Villy (2004) Using ecosystem modeling for fisheries management and marine ecosystem conservation: Where are we? Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.

[edit] Fish farming

To what extent can farmed fish be part of the answer? Farmed salmon, eat three pounds of wild fish to produce one pound of salmon.

• Fish Info Network from Globefish Globefish is the unit in the Fisheries Department of the FAO responsible for information on international fish trade.
• Mann, C. C. (2004). The Bluewater Revolution. Wired Magazine, 12:05, www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.05/fish.html Off-site Link
• Naylor, R. L., Goldburg, R. J., Primavera, J., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M. C. M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troel, M. (2001). [www.esa.org/science_resources/issues/FileEnglish/issue8.pdf "Effects of Aquaculture on World Fish Supplies."] Issues in Ecology, 8: 1—14.
• The Greening of the Blue National Geographic Magazine, April 2007.
• Pauly, D. "Aquacalypse Now" The New Republic, September 28, 2009.
• Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Home page.
• Sustainable Fisheries Partnership: SFP Briefing: Sustainable Aquaculture Feeds and Wild Fisheries , 2009.
• Sustainable Fisheries Partnership: Press Release: Growing issue of sustainable aquaculture feeds present threats and opportunities – seafood retailers risk charge of ‘blue-washing’ September 28, 2009.

[edit] Laws and treaties

International laws and treaties related to marine conservation include the 1966 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas. United States laws related to marine conservation include the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act, as well as the 1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act which established the National Marine Sanctuaries program. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

[edit] Organizations and education

There are organizations throughout the world that focus on promoting strategies for sustainable fishing, educating the public and stakeholders, and lobbying for conservation law and policy. Examples of these organizations are the Marine Conservation Biology Institute (United States),Blue Frontier Campaign (United States), Frontier (the Society for Environmental Exploration) (United Kingdom), Marine Conservation Society (United Kingdom), Australian Marine Conservation Society, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Langkawi Declaration, Oceana, PROFISH, and the Sea Around Us Project.

International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers, Frozen at Sea Fillets Association, CEDO

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals include, as goal #7: target 2, the intention to "reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss", including improving fisheries management to reduce depletion of fish stocks.^[24][25]

Some organisation offer sustainable or good practice certification to fishing industry players, such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea.

There are also organisations which offer advice to those members of the public who want to choose the seafood they eat with an eye to sustainability. According to the marine conservation biologist Callum Roberts, there are four things to look for when choosing seafood:^[26]

• Is the species in trouble in the wild where the animals were caught?
• Does fishing for the species damage ocean habitats?
• Is there a large amount of unwanted bycatch taken with the target species?
• Does the fishery have a problem with discards – generally undersized animals caught and thrown away because their market value is low?

The following organisations have links where wallet-sized cards, listing best choices and species to avoid, can be downloaded:

• Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch, USA – link
• Blue Ocean Institute, USA – link
• Marine Conservation Society, UK – link
• Australian Marine Conservation Society – link
• The Southern African Sustainable Seafood Initiative – link

[edit] Postscript

In the end, we will conserve only what we love;
we will love only what we understand;
and we will understand only what we are taught. – Senegalese conservationalist Baba Dioum^[27]

[edit] See also

• The End of the Line: How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat
• The Ocean Conservancy
• Worldwatch Institute

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Norse, Elliott A. and Crowder, Larry B. (Eds.) (2005) Marine Conservation Biology: The Science of Maintaining the Sea's Biodiversity, Island Press. ISBN 9781559636629
• Ray, G. Carleton and McCormick-Ray, Jerry (eds). (2004). "Coastal-marine conservation: science and policy". Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
• Marine Conservation Biology Institute (MCBI [1]) Bibliography of resources.
• McLeod, Karen and Leslie. Heather (Eds.) (2009) Ecosystem-Based Management for the Oceans Island Press. ISBN 9781597261555
• Berkes F, Mahon R, McConney P, Pollnac R and Pomeroy R (2001) Managing Small-Scale Fisheries: Alternative Directions and Methods IDRC,. ISBN 978-0889369436
• Mann, Kenneth and Lazier, John (3rd Ed. 2005) Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems: Biological-Physical Interactions in the Oceans Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405111188
• Norse EA and Crowder LB (Eds) (2005) Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity Island Press. ISBN 9781559636629
• Worm B, Hilborn R, Baum JK, Branch TA, Collie JS, Costello C, Fogarty MJ, Fulton EA, Hutchings JA, Jennings S, Jensen OP, Lotze HK, Mace PM, McClanahan TR, Minto C, Palumbi SR, Parma AM, Ricard D, Rosenberg AA, Watson R and Zeller D (2009) "Rebuilding global fisheries" Science,325:578-585.
• Grafton RQ, Hilborn R, Ridgeway L, Squires D, Williams M, Garcia S, Groves T, Joseph J, Kelleher K, Kompas T, Libecap G, Lundin CG, Makino M, Matthiasson T, McLoughlin R, Parma A, San Martin G, Satia B, Schmidt C-C, Tait M and Zhang LX (2008) "Positioning fisheries in a changing world" Marine Policy (United Kingdom), 32:630-634.
• Hilborn R (2008) "Knowledge on how to achieve sustainable fisheries" Pages 45-56 in K Tsukamoto, T Kawamura, T Takeuchi, TD Beard, Jr, MJ Kaiser (eds), Fisheries for Global Welfare and Environment, 5th World Fisheries Congress 2008.
• Hughes TP, Bellwooda DR, Folkeb C, Steneck RS and Wilson J (2005) "New paradigms for supporting the resilience of marine ecosystems" Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20(7):380-386 .
• Gell FR and Roberts CM (2003) "Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves" Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18(9):448-455 .
• Pauly D, Christensen V, Guénette S, Pitcher TJ, Sumaila UR, Walters CJ, Watson R and Zeller D (2002) "Towards sustainability in world fisheries" Review article. Nature, 418: 689-695.
• Devine1 JA, Baker1 KD and Haedrich RL (2006) "Fisheries: Deep-sea fishes qualify as endangered" Nature, 439: 29.

---

• 2006-2007 Report Fisheries Centre.

[edit] External links

• "An Interview with Jennifer Jacquet: Small-scale fisheries are "best hope" for sustainability in developing world Mongabay.com, September 8, 2008.
• Overfishing Mongabay.com.
• Fisheries Management: 2006 Publications
• Fisheries Management: 2007 Publications
• Fisheries Management: 2008 Publications
• Sustainable Fisheries MarineBio.

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