Severe Combined Immune Deficiency
Classification and external resources
ICD-10	D81.0-D81.2
ICD-9	279.2
DiseasesDB	11978
eMedicine	med/2214
MeSH	D016511

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), or Boy in the Bubble Syndrome, (also known as "Alymphocytosis," "Glanzmann–Riniker syndrome," "Severe mixed immunodeficiency syndrome," and "Thymic alymphoplasia"^[1]) is a genetic disorder in which both "arms" (B cells and T cells) of the adaptive immune system are crippled, due to a defect in one of several possible genes. SCID is a severe form of heritable immunodeficiency. It is also known as the "bubble boy" disease because its victims are extremely vulnerable to infectious diseases. The most famous case is the boy David Vetter.

Chronic diarrhea, ear infections, recurrent Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, and profuse oral candidiasis commonly occur. These babies, if untreated, usually die within 1 year due to severe, recurrent infections. However, treatment options are much improved since David Vetter.

Contents 1 Prevalence 2 Types 3 Detection 4 Treatment 5 SCID in animals 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Prevalence

The most commonly quoted figure for the prevalence of SCID is around 1 in 100,000 births, although this is regarded by some to be an underestimate of the true prevalence^[2]; and a figure of about 1 in 65,000 live births has been reported for Australia.^[3]

Recent studies indicate that one in every 2,500 children in the Navajo population inherit severe combined immunodeficiency. This condition is a significant cause of illness and death among Navajo children.^[4] Ongoing research reveals a similar genetic pattern among the related Apache people.^[5]

[edit] Types

Type	Description
X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency	Most cases of SCID are due to mutations in the gene encoding the common gamma chain (γc), a protein that is shared by the receptors for interleukins IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15 and IL-21. These interleukins and their receptors are involved in the development and differentiation of T and B cells. Because the common gamma chain is shared by many interleukin receptors, mutations that result in a non-functional common gamma chain cause widespread defects in interleukin signalling. The result is a near complete failure of the immune system to develop and function, with low or absent T cells and NK cells and non-functional B cells. The common gamma chain is encoded by the gene IL-2 receptor gamma, or IL-2Rγ, which is located on the X-chromosome. Therefore, immunodeficiency caused by mutations in IL-2Rγ is known as X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency. The condition is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern.
Adenosine deaminase deficiency	The second most common form of SCID after X-SCID is caused by a defective enzyme, adenosine deaminase (ADA), necessary for the breakdown of purines. Lack of ADA causes accumulation of dATP. This metabolite will inhibit the activity of ribonucleotide reductase, the enzyme that reduces ribonucleotides to generate deoxyribonucleotides. The effectiveness of the immune system depends upon lymphocyte proliferation and hence dNTP synthesis. Without functional ribonucleotide reductase, lymphocyte proliferation is inhibited and the immune system is compromised.
Omenn syndrome	The manufacture of immunoglobulins requires recombinase enzymes derived from the recombination activating genes RAG-1 and RAG-2. These enzymes are involved in the first stage of V(D)J recombination, the process by which segments of a B cell or T cell's DNA are rearranged to create a new T cell receptor or B cell receptor (and, in the B cell's case, the template for antibodies). Certain mutations of the RAG-1 or RAG-2 genes prevent V(D)J recombination, causing SCID.[6]
Bare lymphocyte syndrome	MHC class II is not expressed on the cell surface of all antigen presenting cells. Autosomal recessive. The MHC-II gene regulatory proteins are what is altered, not the MHC-II protein itself.
JAK3	Janus kinase-3 (JAK3) is an enzyme that mediates transduction downstream of the γc signal. Mutation of its gene also causes SCID.[7]
Artemis/DCLRE1C	Mortan Cowan, MD, director of the Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplant Program at the University of California-San Francisco, noted that although researchers have identified about a dozen genes that cause SCID, the Navajo and Apache population has the most severe form of the disorder. This is due to the lack of a gene designated Artemis. Without the gene, children's bodies are unable to repair DNA or develop disease-fighting cells. [4][5]

[edit] Detection

Several US states are performing pilot studies to diagnose SCID in newborns through the use of T-cell recombinant excision circles.^{[citation needed]} Wisconsin and Massachusetts (as of February 1, 2009) screen newborns for SCID.^[8][9]

Despite these pilot programs, standard testing for SCID is not currently available in newborns due to the diversity of the genetic defect. Some SCID can be detected by sequencing fetal DNA if a known history of the disease exists. Otherwise, SCID is not diagnosed until about six months of age, usually indicated by recurrent infections. The delay in detection is because newborns carry their mother's antibodies for the first few weeks of life and SCID babies look normal.

[edit] Treatment

The most common treatment for SCID is bone marrow transplantation, which has been successful using either a matched related or unrelated donor, or a half-matched donor, who would be either parent. The half-matched type of transplant is called haploidentical and was perfected by Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York and also Duke University Medical Center which currently does the highest number of these transplants of any center in the world.^[10] David Vetter, the original "bubble boy", had one of the first transplantations but eventually died because of an unscreened virus, Epstein-Barr (tests were not available at the time), in his newly transplanted bone marrow from his sister. Today, transplants done in the first three months of life have a high success rate. Physicians have also had some success with in utero transplants done before the child is born and also by using cord blood which is rich in stem cells.

More recently gene therapy has been attempted as an alternative to the bone marrow transplant. Transduction of the missing gene to hematopoietic stem cells using viral vectors is being tested in ADA SCID and X-linked SCID. The first gene therapy trials were performed in 1990, with peripheral T cells. In 2000, the first gene therapy "success" resulted in SCID patients with a functional immune system. These trials were stopped when it was discovered that two of ten patients in one trial had developed leukemia resulting from the insertion of the gene-carrying retrovirus near an oncogene. In 2007, four of the ten patients have developed leukemias ^[11]. Work is now focusing on correcting the gene without triggering an oncogene. No leukemia cases have yet been seen in trials of ADA-SCID, which does not involve the gamma c gene that may be oncogenic when expressed by a retrovirus.

Trial treatments of SCID have been gene therapy's only success; since 1999, gene therapy has restored the immune systems of at least 17 children with two forms (ADA-SCID and X-SCID) of the disorder.

[edit] SCID in animals

SCID mice were and still are used in disease, vaccine, and transplant research, especially as animal models for testing the safety of new vaccines or therapeutic agents in people with weakened immune systems.

An animal variation of the disease, an autosomal recessive gene with clinical signs similar to the human condition, also affects the Arabian horse. In horses, the condition remains a fatal disease, as the animal inevitably succumbs to an opportunistic infection within the first four to six months of life.^[12] However, carriers, who themselves are not affected by the disease, can be detected with a DNA test. Thus careful breeding practices can avoid the risk of an affected foal being produced.^[13]

Another animal with well-characterized SCID pathology is the dog. There are two known forms, an X-linked SCID in Basset Hounds that has similar ontology to X-SCID in humans^[14], and an autosomal recessive form seen in one line of Jack Russell Terriers that is similar to SCID in Arabian horses and mice.^[15]

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Learning About Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) NIH
• Buckley RH (2004). "Molecular defects in human severe combined immunodeficiency and approaches to immune reconstitution". Annu Rev Immunol 22: 625–55. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104614. PMID 15032591. 
• Chinen J, Puck JM (2004). "Successes and risks of gene therapy in primary immunodeficiencies". J Allergy Clin Immunol 113 (4): 595–603; quiz 604. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2004.01.765. PMID 15100660. 
• Church AC (2002). "X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency". Hosp Med 63 (11): 676–80. PMID 12474613. 
• Gennery AR, Cant AJ (2001). "Diagnosis of severe combined immunodeficiency". J Clin Pathol 54 (3): 191–5. doi:10.1136/jcp.54.3.191. PMID 11253129. 
• Concept of gene therapy for SCID

v • d • e Immune disorders: Lymphoid and complement immunodeficiency (D80-D85, 279) Primary Antibody/humoral (B) Hypogammaglobulinemia X-linked agammaglobulinemia · Transient hypogammaglobulinemia of infancy Dysgammaglobulinemia IgA deficiency · IgG deficiency · IgM deficiency · Hyper IgM syndrome (2, 3, 4, 5) · Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome · Hyper-IgE syndrome Other Common variable immunodeficiency · ICF syndrome Cell-mediated (T) thymic hypoplasia: hypoparathyroid (Di George's syndrome) · euparathyroid (Nezelof syndrome, Ataxia telangiectasia) peripheral: Purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency · Hyper IgM syndrome (1) Severe combined (B+T) x-linked: X-SCID autosomal: Adenosine deaminase deficiency · Omenn syndrome · ZAP70 deficiency · Bare lymphocyte syndrome Acquired AIDS Lymphocytopenia Idiopathic CD4+ lymphocytopenia Complement deficiency C1-inhibitor (Angioedema/Hereditary angioedema) · Complement 2 deficiency lymphocyte navs: cells/physio, immunodeficiency/immunoproliferative immunoglobulin/neoplasia, proc

v • d • e Metabolic disease: DNA repair-deficiency disorder Thymine dimer Xeroderma pigmentosum MSI/DNA mismatch repair Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer · Muir–Torre syndrome · Mismatch repair cancer syndrome Other Ataxia telangiectasia · Bloom syndrome · Cockayne syndrome · Fanconi anemia · Li-Fraumeni syndrome · Nijmegen breakage syndrome · Rothmund-Thomson syndrome · Severe combined immunodeficiency · Werner syndrome