Self-medication is the use of drugs or self-soothing forms of behavior to treat a perceived or real malady. Self-medication is often referred to in the context of a person self-medicating, in order to alleviate their own distress or pain.

[edit] Overview

As different drugs have different effects, they may be used for different reasons. According to the self-medication hypothesis (SMH), the individuals’ choice of a particular drug is not accidental or coincidental, but instead, a result of the individuals’ psychological condition, as the drug of choice provides relief to the user specific to his or her condition. Specifically, addiction is hypothesized to function as a compensatory means to modulate affects and treat distressful psychological states, whereby individuals choose the drug that will most appropriately manage their specific type of psychiatric distress and help them achieve emotional stability.^[1][2]

The self-medication hypothesis (SMH) originated in papers by Edward Khantzian, Mack and Schatzberg,^[3] David F. Duncan,^[4] and a response to Khantzian by Duncan.^[5] The SMH initially focused on heroin use, but a follow-up paper added cocaine.^[6] The SMH was later expanded to include alcohol,^[7] and finally all drugs of addiction.^[1][8]

According to Khantzian’s view of addiction, drug users compensate for deficient ego function^[3] by using a drug as an “ego solvent,” which acts on parts of the self that are cut off from consciousness by defense mechanisms.^[1] According to Khantzian,^[6] drug dependent individuals generally experience more psychiatric distress than non-drug dependent individuals, and the development of drug dependence involves the gradual incorporation of the drug effects and the need to sustain these effects into the defensive structure-building activity of the ego itself. The addict's choice of drug is a result of the interaction between the psychopharmacologic properties of the drug and the affective states from which the addict was seeking relief. The drug’s effects substitute for defective or non-existent ego mechanisms of defense. The addicts’ drug of choice, therefore, is not random.

While Khantzian takes a psychodynamic approach to self-medication, Duncan’s model focuses on behavioral factors. Duncan described the nature of positive reinforcement (e.g., the “high feeling,” approval from peers), negative reinforcement (e.g. reduction of negative affect) and avoidance of withdrawal symptoms, all of which are seen in those who develop problematic drug use, but are not all found in recreational drug users.^[4] While earlier behavioral formulations of drug dependence using operant conditioning maintained that positive and negative reinforcement were necessary for drug dependence, Duncan maintained that drug dependence was not maintained by positive reinforcement, but rather by negative reinforcement. Duncan applied a public health model to drug dependence, where the agent (the drug of choice) infects the host (the drug user) through a vector (e.g., peers), while the environment supports the disease process, through stressors and lack of support.^[4][9]

Khantzian revisited the SMH, suggesting there is more evidence that psychiatric symptoms, rather than personality styles, lie at the heart of drug use disorders^[1]. Khantzian specified that the two crucial aspects of the SMH were that (1) drugs of abuse produce a relief from psychological suffering and (2) the individual’s preference for a particular drug is based on its psychopharmacological properties.^[1] The individual’s drug of choice is determined through experimentation, whereby the interaction of the main effects of the drug, the individual’s inner psychological turmoil, and underlying personality traits identify the drug that produces the desired effects.^[1]

Meanwhile, Duncan’s work focuses on the difference between recreational and problematic drug use.^[10] Data obtained in the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study demonstrated that only 20% of drug users ever experience an episode of drug abuse (Anthony & Helzer, 1991), while data obtained from the National Comorbidity Study demonstrated that only 15% of alcohol users and 15% of illicit drug users ever become dependent.^[11] A crucial determinant of whether a drug user develops drug abuse is the presence or absence of negative reinforcement, which is experienced by problematic users, but not by recreational users.^[12] According to Duncan, drug dependence is an avoidance behavior, where an individual finds a drug that produces a temporary escape from a problem, and taking the drug is reinforced as an operant behavior.^[4]

[edit] Specific mechanisms

Some mental illness sufferers attempt to correct their illnesses by use of certain drugs. Depression is often self medicated with alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, or other mind-altering drug use^[13]. While this may provide immediate relief of some symptoms such as anxiety, it may evoke and/or exacerbate some symptoms of several kinds of mental illnesses that are already latently present^[14], and may lead to addiction/dependence, among other side effects of long-term use of the drug.

Sufferers of post-traumatic stress disorder have been known to self-medicate, as well as many individuals without this diagnosis whom have suffered from (mental) trauma.^[15]

Due to the different effects of the different classes of drugs, the SMH postulates that the appeal of a specific class of drugs differs from person to person. In fact, some drugs may be aversive for individuals for whom the effects could worsen affective deficits.^[1]

[edit] CNS Depressants

Alcohol and sedative/hypnotic drugs, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, are central nervous system (CNS) depressants, which produce feelings of relaxation, and sedation, while relieving feelings of depression and anxiety. Alcohol also lowers inhibitions, while benzodiazepines are anxiolytic. Though they are generally ineffective antidepressants, as most are short-acting, the rapid onset of alcohol and sedative/hypnotics softens rigid defenses and, in low to moderate doses, provides the illusion of relief from depressive affect and anxiety.^[1][2] As alcohol also lowers inhibitions, alcohol is also hypothesized to be used by those who normally constrain emotions by attenuating intense emotions in high or obliterating doses, which allows them to express feelings of affection, aggression, and closeness.^[8][2]

[edit] Psychostimulants

Psychostimulants, such as crack/cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine, produce improvements in physical and mental functioning, including increased energy and feelings of euphoria. Stimulants tend to be used by individuals who experience depression, to reduce anhedonia^[2] and increase self-esteem.^[7] The SMH also hypothesizes that hyperactive and hypomanic individuals use stimulants to maintain their restlessness and heighten euphoria.^[6][7][2] Additionally, stimulants are useful to individuals with social anxiety by helping individuals break through their inhibitions.^[2]

[edit] Opiates

Opiates, such as heroin and morphine, function as an analgesic by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and gastrointestinal tract. This binding releases endogenous opioids, which reduce the perception of and reaction to pain, while also increasing pain tolerance. Opiates are hypothesized to self-medicate aggression and rage.^[6][8] Though opiates could mute anxiety, individuals with anxiety tend not to abuse opiates.^[2]

[edit] Cannabis

Cannabis is considered to have both stimulating and sedating properties, and also serves as a mild hallucinogenic. Khantzian noted that research had not sufficiently addressed a theoretical mechanism for cannabis, and therefore did not include it in the SMH.^[2]

[edit] Exposure To Organic Solvents

Chronic exposure to organic solvents in the work environment can produce a range of adverse neuropsychiatric effects. Occupational exposure to organic solvents can lead to alcoholism with higher numbers of painters for example suffering from alcoholism.^[16]

[edit] Independence

Self-medication is often seen as gaining personal independence from established medicine. In the United States the prohibitive cost of modern health care is a contributory factor. ^[17]

When turpentine and other hydrocarbons are used as paint solvents, it's easy to understand the fumes having the same physiological reaction as too many drinks of ethyl alcohol. However, with the advent of latex paint and other water-thinned paints, the incidence of on-the-job drinking among house and light industrial brush painters hasn't decreased noticeably. Quite possibly the biggest reason is the strain of painting over one's head. No matter the degree of developed musculature, due to extensive experience, the strain on the neck and shoulders is intense. Drinking to the point of "feeling no pain" is a great temptation under those circumstances. Michelangelo in a letter describing the arduous conditions under which he worked:

I've grown a goitre by dwelling in this den
As cats from stagnant streams in Lombardy,
Or in what other land they hap to be
Which drives the belly close beneath the chin:
My beard turns up to heaven; my nape falls in
Fixed on my spine: my breast-bone visibly
Grows like a harp: a rich embroidery
Bedews my face from brush-drips, thick and thin.
My loins into my paunch like levers grind:
My buttock like a crupper bears my weight;
My feet unguided wander to and fro;
In front my skin grows loose and long; behind,
By bending it becomes more taut and strait;
Crosswise I strain me like a Syrian bow:
Whence false and quaint, I know,
Must be the fruit of squinting brain and eye;
For ill can aim the gun that bends awry.
Come then, Giovanni, try
To succour my dead pictures and my fame;
Since foul I fare and painting is my shame.

Translation John Addington Symonds

<commom observation><Vassari - 1568>

[edit] Effectiveness

Self medicating excessively for prolonged periods of time with benzodiazepines or alcohol often make the symptoms of anxiety or depression worse. This is believed to occur as a result of the changes in brain chemistry from long-term use.^{[18][19][20][21][22]} Approximately half of patients attending mental health services for conditions including anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia are the result of alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence^{[citation needed]}.

Sometimes anxiety pre-existed alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence but the alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence act to keep the anxiety disorders going and often progressively making them worse. However, some people who are addicted to alcohol or benzodiazepines, when it is explained to them they have a choice between ongoing ill mental health or quitting and recovering from their symptoms, decide on quitting alcohol and or their benzodiazepines. It was noted that every individual has an individual sensitivity level to alcohol or sedative hypnotic drugs and what one person can tolerate without ill health another will suffer very ill health and that even moderate drinking can cause rebound anxiety syndromes and sleep disorders. A person who is suffering the toxic effects of alcohol will not benefit from other therapies or medications as they do not address the root cause of the symptoms.^[23]

[edit] See also

• Dual diagnosis
• Psychological trauma
• Deinstitutionalisation

[edit] References