Proto-Indo-Iranian is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are usually connected with the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Indo-Iranian was a Satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, the Dardic languages and the Nuristani languages.
[edit] Descriptive phonology
PII vowel segments | High | *i *ī *u *ū |
| Low | *a *ā |
In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core.
[edit] Two palatal series
Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to contain two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[1] The following table shows the most common reflexes and origins of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[2][3]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Proto-Iranian | Avestan | Old Persian | Nuristani |
| *k̂ | *ĉ | ś ([ɕ]) | *ts | s | θ | ċ ([ts]) / š |
| *ĝ | *ĵ | j ([ɟ]) | *dz | z | d | j ([dz]) / z |
| *ĝʰ | *ĵʰ | h ([ɦ]) |
| *k/kʷ | *č | c | *č | č | č | č |
| *g/gʷ | *ǰ | j ([ɟ]) | *ǰ | ǰ | ǰ | ǰ / ž |
| *gʰ/gʷʰ | *ǰʰ | h ([ɦ]) |
[edit] Laryngeal
Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have three or more laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic position. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged together as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Avestan as unwritten glottal stops.[4]
[edit] Accent
Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[5]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent, indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.
[edit] Historical phonology
The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.
A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:
- The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *k̂ *ĝ *ĝʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ĉ, *ĵ, *ĵʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[6]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
| *k̂m̥tóm | *ĉatám | śatám | satəm | centum | "hundred" |
| *ĝónu | *ĵā́nu | jā́nu | zānu | genu | "knee" |
| *ĝʰéi-mn̥ | *ĵʰimá- | himá- | zima- | hiems | "winter" / "snow" |
| *kʷó- | *ká- | ká- | kō | quis | "who?, what?" |
| *gʷou- | *gau- | go | gau- | bos, bovis | "cow" |
| *gʷʰormó- | *gʰarmá- | gharmá- | garəma- | formus | "heat" |
- The PIE syllabic liquids *l̥, *r̥ merge as *r̥.[7]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
| *wĺ̥kʷo- | *wŕ̥ka- | *vŕ̥ka- | vəhrka- | lupus | "wolf" |
- The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[7]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
| *k̂m̥tóm | *ĉatám | śatám | satəm | centum | "hundred" |
| *mn̥tó- | *matá | matá- | | mens, mentis | "thinking" |
- Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dzdʰ.[8]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *ubʰto- | *ubdʰa- | | ubdaēna | "weaved" / "made of weaved material" |
| *urdʰto- | *urdzdʰa- | vr̥ddʰá- | vrzda- | "complete/mature" |
| *augʰ-tá- | *augdʰá- | *óhate | *augda | "he said" |
- The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following *r *r̥ *u *k or *i. Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[7]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *wers- | *warš- | varṣman- | | "summit" |
| *pr̥sto- | *pr̥šta- | pr̥ṣṭhá- | paršta | "back" / "backbone" |
| *ǵeus- | *ĵauš- | joṣati | zaošō | "taste" |
| *kʷsep- | *kšap- (< *ksep) | kṣāp | xšap | "darkness" |
| *wis- | *wiš- | viṣa- | viša- | "poison" |
| *nisdo- | *nižda- | nīḍa- | | "nest" |
- Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[9]
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *h₂ok̂tṓ | *oĉtṓ) | *aštā́ | aṣṭaú | ašta | "eight" |
| *h₃mr̥ĝt- | *mr̥ĵd- | *mr̥žd- | mr̥ḍīká- | mərəžḍīka | "wiped away" / "pardon" |
| *uĝʰtó- | *uĵʰtó- | *uždʰá- | ūḍhá- | | "carried" |
- The sequence *ĉs was simplified to *šš.[10]
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
| *h₂ék̂s- | *áĉs- | *ášš- | ákṣa- | aši- | axis | "shoulder" / "axle" |
- The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[8]
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *kʷe | *ke | *ča | ca | ča | "and" |
| *gʷíh₃weti | *gíh₃weti | *ǰī́wati | jī́vati | jvaiti | "lives" |
| *gʷʰénti | *gʰénti | *ǰʰánti | hánti | jainti | "slays" |
| PIE | pre-PII | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | Latin | |
| *deh₃tór-m | *deh₃tṓr-m | *dātā́ram | dātā́ram | dātāram | dator | "giver" (acc. sg.) |
- The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *kʷe | *ča (< *če) | ca | ča | "and" |
| *gʷʰormó- | *gʰarmá- | gharmá- | garəma- | "heat" |
| *bʰréh₂tēr | *bʰrā́tār | bhrā́tā | brātā | "brother" |
| *wōkʷs | *wākš | vāk | vāxš | "voice" |
- In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[12][13]
- Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *ph₂trei | *pitrai | pitre | piθrai | "father" (dative singular) |
-
- Following a consonant and word-final
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *-medʰh₂ | *-madʰi | -mahi | -madi | (1st person plural middle ending) |
- The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[14]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *ph₂tér | *pHtā́ | pitā́ | ptā | "father" (nominative singular) |
- According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[15]
| PIE | PII | Sanskrit | Avestan | |
| *bʰeh₂g- | *bʰag- ( < *bʰaHg- ) | bʰag- | baxša | "distribute" |
[edit] Subsequent sound changes
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.
Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences[16] | PIE | OInd/VS | Av | PIE | OInd/VS | Av |
| *p | > | p | p | *ph̥atēr "father" | pitā́ "father" | pitar- "father" |
| *b | > | b | b | *bel- "strong" | bálam "strength" | - |
| *bh | > | bh | b | *bhréhatēr "brother" | bhrā́tār- "brother" | brātar- "brother |
| *t | > | t | t | *tuhxóm "thou" | tuvám "thou" | tvəm "thou" |
| *d | > | d | d | *doru "wood" | dā́ru "wood" | dāru- "wood" |
| *dh | > | dh | d | *dhohxneha- "grain" | dhānā́- "grain" | dāna- "grain" |
| *k̂ | > | ś | s | *dék̂m̥ "ten" | dáśa "ten" | dasa "ten" |
| *ĝ | > | j | z | *ĝónu "knee" | jā́nu "knee" | zānu- "knee" |
| *ĝh | > | h | z | *ĝhimós "cold" | himá- "cold, frost" | zəmaka- "winterstorm" |
| *k | > | k ~ c | x ~ č | *kruharós "bloody" | krūrá- "bloody" | xrūra- "bloody" |
| | | | *téket "may he run" | - | tačat̰ "may he run" |
| *g | > | g ~ j | g ~ ǰ | *haéuges- "strength" | ójas- "strength" | aoǰah "strength" |
| | | | *haugrós "strong" | ugrá- "strong" | ugra- "strong" |
| *gh | > | gh ~ h | g ~ ǰ | *dl̥hxghós "long" | dīrghá- "long" | darəga- "long" |
| | | | *dlehxghistos "longest" | - | draǰišta- "longest" |
| *kw | > | k ~ c | k ~ č | *kwós "who" | káḥ "who" | kō "who" |
| | | | *kwe "and" | ca "and" | ́ča "and" |
| *gw | > | g ~ j | g ~ ǰ | *gwou- "cow" | gav- "cow" | gau- "cow" |
| | | | *gwih3uós "alive" | jīvá- "alive" | OPer: ǰīva - "living" |
| *gwh | > | gh ~ h | g ~ ǰ | *gwhnénti "strike" (pl.) | ghnánti "strike" (pl.) | - |
| | | | *gwhénti "strikes" | hánti "strikes" | ǰainti "strikes" |
| *s | > | s | s ~ h | *septm̥ "seven" | saptá "seven" | hapta "seven" |
| | | | *asti "is" | asti "is" | asti "is" |
| *i̥ | > | y | y | *i̥ugóm "yoke" | yuga'm "yoke" | yuga- "yoke" |
| *u̥ | > | v | v | *u̥éĝheti "drives, rides" | váhati "drives" | vazaiti "travels" |
| *m | > | m | m | *méhatēr "mother" | mātár- "mother" | mātar- "mother" |
| *n | > | n | n | *nos "us" | nas "us" | nō "us" |
| *l | > | l ~ r | r | *kweleti "moves" | carati "moves" | caraiti "moves" |
| *r | > | r | r | *bhrehatēr "brother" | bhrā́tār- "brother" | brātar- "brother |
| *n̥ | > | a | a | *n̥- "un-" | a- "un-" | a- "un-" |
| *m̥ | > | a | a | *k̂m̥tóm "hundred" | s'atám "hundred" | satəm "hundred" |
| *l̥ | > | r̥ | ərər | *u̥l̥kwos "wolf" | vĺ̥ka- "wolf" | vəhrka- "wolf" |
| *r̥ | > | r̥ | ərər | *k̂r̥d- "heart" | hŕ̥d- "heart" | zərəd- "heart" |
| *i | > | i | i | *linékwti "leaves" | riṇákti "leaves" | irinaxti "releases" |
| *e | > | a | a | *dék̂m̥ "ten" | dáśa "ten" | dasa "ten" |
| *ē | > | ā | ā | *hanḗr "man" | nā "man" | nā "man" |
| *a | > | a | a | *haéĝeti "drives" | ájati "drives" | azaiti "drives" |
| *ā | > | ā | ā | *méhatēr "mother" | mātā́ "mother" | mātar- "mother" |
| *o | > | a ~ ā | a ~ ā | *ĝómbhos "tooth, peg" | jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk" | - |
| | | | *ĝónu "knee" | jānu "knee" | zānu- "knee" |
| *ō | > | ā | ā | *dhohxneha- "grain" | dhānā́- "grain" | dāna- "grain" |
| *u | > | u | u | *iugóm "yoke" | yugám "yoke" | yuga- "yoke" |
| *ū | > | ū | ū | *mū́s "mouse" | mū́ṣ- "mouse" | NPer mūs "mouse" |
| *h1 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h1ésti "is" | ásti "is" | asti "is" |
| *h2 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h2r̥tk̂os "bear" | r̥'kṣa- "bear" | arəša- "bear" |
| *h3 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h3ókws(i) "eye" | ákṣi "eye" | aši "eye" |
| *h4 | > | ⊘ | ⊘ | *h4órĝhis "testicle" | - | ərəzi- "testicle" |
| Proto-Indo-Iranian | Old Iranian (OP, Av) | Old Indic/Vedic Sanskrit |
| *aĉwa- ("horse") | Av, OP aspa | aśva |
| *bʰag- | OP baj- (bāji; "tribute") | bhag- (bhaga) |
| *bʰrātr- ("brother") | OP brātar | bhrātṛ |
| *bʰūmī ("earth", "land") | OP būmi | bhūmī |
| *martya ("mortal, "man") | OP martya | martya |
| *māsa ("moon") | OP māha | māsa |
| *wāsara ("early") | OP vāhara ("spring") | vāsara ("morning") |
| *arta ("truth") | Av aša, OP arta | ṛta |
| *draugʰ- ("falsehood") | Av druj, OP draug- | druh- |
| *sauma "pressed (juice)" | Av haoma | soma |
[edit] Schleicher's fable
Carlos Quiles Casas of the Dnghu Group gives a Proto-Indo-Iranian version of Schleicher's fable [17], dating from around 2500 BCE. It will be noted that not all the phonological changes postulated for Proto-Indo-Iranian are complete: for example the syllabic nasals *m̥ and *n̥ have not yet merged with *a:
Áwis áĉwās-ka. Áwis, kasja wr̥̄nā na āst, áĉwams spaĉát, áikam gr̥úm wágʰam wágʰantm̥, áikam-ka mágʰam bʰáram, áikam-ka gʰámanm̥ āĉu bʰárantm̥. Áwis nu áĉwabʰjas áwaukat: “Ĉr̥d ágʰnutai mai, áĉwams aĵantam wīram wídn̥tai”. Áĉwās tu áwawkant: “Ĉrudʰí ávi! ĉr̥d ágʰnutai n̥smái wídn̥tbʰjas: nar, pátis, áwjam-r̥ wr̥̄nām swábʰi gʰarmám wástram kr̥náuti”. Áwjam-ka wr̥̄nā na ásti. Tat ĉáĉruwas áwis áĵram ábʰugat.
- ^ Burrow, pp. 78-79
- ^ Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998.). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). Routledge,. pp. 134. ISBN 041506449X. http://books.google.com/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C.
- ^ Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London ; New York: Routledge. pp. 24. ISBN 0700711309. http://books.google.com/books?id=mK4kEuDXySIC.
- ^ Beekes (1988), p. 50
- ^ Beekes, p. 55
- ^ Burrow, pp. 74-75
- ^ a b c Fortson, p. 182
- ^ a b Fortson, p. 181
- ^ Burrow, p. 91
- ^ Burrow, pp. 92-94
- ^ Fortson, p. 183
- ^ Beekes, pp, 85-86
- ^ Lubotsky, p. 53
- ^ get ref
- ^ Beekes, pp. 88-89
- ^ "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.
- ^ indo-european-schleicher-fable.pdf
[edit] Bibliography
- Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 9004083324. http://books.google.com/books?id=ysQUAAAAIAAJ.
- Burrow, T. (2001). The Sanskrit Language (1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120817672. http://books.google.com/books?id=cWDhKTj1SBYC.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (illustrated ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405103167. http://books.google.com/books?id=5hOtPBF6XWwC.
- Lubotsky, A. M. (1988). The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 9004088350. http://books.google.com/books?id=6jBnmLnhXWwC.
- Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
- Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).
[edit] See also
