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Indo-European topics
Indo-European languages (list)
Albanian · Armenian · Baltic Celtic · Germanic · Greek Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian) Italic · Slavic   extinct: Anatolian · Paleo-Balkans (Dacian, Phrygian, Thracian) · Tocharian
Indo-European peoples
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Proto-Indo-Europeans
Language · Society · Religion
Urheimat hypotheses
Kurgan hypothesis Anatolia · Armenia · India · PCT
Indo-European studies

The society of the Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIE) existed during the Bronze Age (roughly fifth to fourth millennium BC), and has been reconstructed through analyses of modern Indo-European societies as well as archaeological evidence. PIE society was most likely patrilineal, and probably semi-nomadic, relying on animal husbandry.

Contents 1 Societal structure 2 Technology 3 Subsistence 4 Ritual and sacrifice 5 Names 6 Poetry 7 Philosophy 8 References

[edit] Societal structure

The native name with which these people referred to themselves as a linguistic community, or as an ethnic unity of related tribes cannot be reconstructed with certainty, since these people had not yet adopted writing.

There is evidence for sacral kingship, suggesting the tribal chief at the same time assumed the role of high priest. Many Indo-European societies still show signs of an earlier threefold division of a clerical class, a warrior class and a class of farmers or husbandmen. Such a division was suggested for the Proto-Indo-European society by Georges Dumézil.

If there was a separate class of warriors, it probably consisted of single young men. They would have followed a separate warrior code unacceptable in the society outside their peer-group. Traces of initiation rites in several Indo-European societies suggest that this group identified itself with wolves or dogs (see Berserker, Werewolf, Wild Hunt).

The people were organized in settlements (*weiḱs; English -wick "village", Sanskrit viśvas "world", Greek eco-), probably each with its chief (*h₃rēǵs -- Sanskrit rājan, Latin rex, reg- ). These settlements or villages were further divided in households (*domos), each headed by a patriarch (*dems-potis; Ancient Greek despotes, Sanskrit dampati).

[edit] Technology

Technologically, reconstruction suggests a culture of the Bronze Age: Words for Bronze can be reconstructed (*h₂éyos) from Germanic, Italic and Indo-Iranian, while no word for Iron can be dated to the proto-language. Gold and Silver were known.

An *n̥sis (Sanskrit así, Latin ensis) was a bladed weapon, originally a dagger of Bronze or in earliest times of bone. An *iḱmos was a spear or similar pointed weapon. Words for axe are *h₂égʷsih₂ (Germanic, Greek, Italic) and *péleḱu- (Sanskrit paraśú, Greek pélekus); these could have been either of stone or of bronze.

The wheel (*kʷékʷlos - Sanskrit cakrá, Greek kúklos, OE hweol; or *róth₂eh₂ - Sanskrit rathá, German rad, Latin rota) was known, certainly for ox-drawn carts. Horse-drawn chariots developed after the breakup of the proto-language, originating with the Proto-Indo-Iranians around 2000 BC.

Judging by the vocabulary, techniques of weaving, plaiting, tying knots etc. were important and well-developed and used for textile production as well as for baskets, fences, walls etc. Weaving and binding also had a strong magical connotation, and magic is often expressed by such metaphors.^{[citation needed]} The bodies of the deceased seem to have been literally tied to their graves to prevent their return.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Subsistence

Proto-Indo-European society depended on animal husbandry. Cattle (*péḱu - Sanskrit páśu, Latin pecu- *gʷōus - Sanskrit go, Latin bo-) were the most important animals to them, and a man's wealth would be measured by the number of cows he owned. Sheep (*h₃ówis) and goats (*gʰáidos) were also kept, presumably by the less wealthy. Agriculture and catching fish (*písḱos) were also practiced.

The domestication of the horse (*h₁eḱuos - Sanskrit áśvas, Latin equus) (see Tarpan) may have been an innovation of this people and is sometimes invoked as a factor contributing to their rapid expansion.

[edit] Ritual and sacrifice

They practiced a polytheistic religion centered on sacrificial rites, probably administered by a class of priests or shamans.

Animals were slaughtered (*gʷʰn̥tós) and dedicated to the gods (*déiwos) in the hope of winning their favour. The king as the high priest would have been the central figure in establishing favourable relations with the other world.

The Kurgan hypothesis suggests burials in barrows or tomb chambers. Important leaders would have been buried with their belongings, and possibly also with members of their household or wives (sati). The practice of human sacrifice is inferred from the Luhansk sacrificial site.

[edit] Names

The use of two-word compound words for personal names, typically but not always ascribing some noble or heroic feat to their bearer, is so common in Indo-European languages that it seems certainly inherited. These names are often of the class of compound words that in Sanskrit are called bahuvrihi compounds.

They are found in the Celtic region (Dumnorix: "king of the world"; Kennedy: "ugly head"), in Indo-Aryan languages (Asvaghosa: "tamer of horses"); in Greek (Socrates: "good ruler", Hipparchos: "horse master"; Cleopatra: "from famous lineage") in Slavic languages (Vladimir: "great ruler"); in the Germanic languages (Alfred: "elf-counsel"; Godiva: "gift of God"), and in the Anatolian languages (Piyama-Radu: "gift of the devotee?").

Patronymics such as Gustafson ("son of Gustav"), MacDonald ("son of Donald") are also frequently encountered in Indo-European languages.

[edit] Poetry

Only small fragments of Proto-Indo-European poetry may be recovered. What survives of their poetry are stock phrases of two or three words, like undying fame (*ḱléwos n̥dʰgʷʰitom) and immortal gods, that are found in diverse ancient sources. These seem to have been standard building blocks for song lyrics.

Inferring chiefly from the Vedas, there would have been sacrificial hymns, creation myths (such as myths of a world tree), and hero tales (the slaying of a serpent or a dragon, *kʷr̥mis by a heroic man or god).

Probably of the greatest importance to the Indo-Europeans themselves were songs extolling great deeds by heroic warriors. In addition to perpetuating their glory (*ḱléwos), such songs would also temper the warriors' behavior, since each needed to consider whether his undying fame would be honorable or shameful. See also bard, fili, skald, rhapsode.

[edit] Philosophy

Some words connected with PIE world-view:

• *gʰosti- concerned mutual obligations between people and between worshipers and gods, and from which guest and host are derived.
• *h₁r̥-tu-, *h₁r̥-to-, "fitting, right, ordered", also "right time, ritually correct", related to the order of the world (Avestan asha, Vedic rta-, rtu-)

[edit] References

• Fortson IV, Benjamin W. (2004), Indo-European Language and Culture, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 16–44, ISBN 1-4051-0316-7 
• Stüber, Karin, 'Die Stellung der Frau: Spuren indogermanischer Gesellschaftsordnung in der Sprache' in: Schärer, K. (ed.) Spuren lesen, Chronos (2007), ISBN 978-3-0340-0879-2, pp. 97–115.