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AAPM&R - AD? VO-CACY ? (ad-vuh-kuh-see) n.
AAPM&R - AD? VO-CACY ? (ad-vuh-kuh-see) n.
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For other uses, see: Popol Vuh (disambiguation)
The oldest written account of Popol Vuh (ms c.1701 by Francisco Ximénez, O.P.)

Popol Vuh (Popol Wu'uj in modern K'iche' spelling; IPA: [popol wuʔuχ]) is a corpus of mythological narratives and regnal genealogies of the Post-Classic Quiché kingdom in Guatemala highlands. The title translates as "Book of the Community", "Book of Counsel", or more literally as "Book of the Mat".[1] A large part of Popol Vuh's significance is that there are very few early accounts of Mesoamerican mythologies, and the fortuitous suvival of Popol Vuh is attributable to a 17th century Dominican friar. Popol Vuh contains a diluvian creation myth followed by tales of the two Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanqué.[2] The mythistory concludes with details of the foundation and history of the Quiché kingdom, and ties the royal family with the legendary gods as an assertion of divine right rulership.

Contents

[edit] Contents

[edit] Summary

Popol Vuh encompases a range of subjects that includes creation, ancestry, history, and cosmology. There are no content divisions in the surviving manuscript, but popular editions have adopted the organization imposed by Brasseur de Bourbourg in 1861 in order to "facilitate" comparative studies.[3] Since then, some variation has been tested by Tedlock and Christenson. Popol Vuh typically takes the following form:

Preamble

  • Explanation of the written redaction

Part 1

  • Creation of the world, animals, and first humans of earth and mud. They soak up water and dissolve.
  • Creation of second humans out of wood, "but they did not have souls, nor minds, they did not remember their Creator, their Maker."[4]
  • Wooden men are beaten and disfigured by their domesticated animals, pots, and hearth stones. They are decimated by a deluge of heavy resin
  • Hero twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque defeat Vucub-Caquix and his sons Zipacna and Cabracan.

Part 2

  • Diviners Xpiyacoc and Xmucané beget Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú
  • Hun Hunahpú and Xbaquiyalo beget Hunbatz and Hunchouén.
  • Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú are summoned to the underworld of Xibalbá where they are killed.
  • Hun Hunahpú's head is placed in a tree. One day Xquic walks by and talks with Hun Hunahpú's skull. It impregnates her by spitting on her hand. She lives with Xmucané and gives birth to "Hero Twins" Hunahpu and Xbalanqué. They are mistreated by their half-brothers Hunbatz and Huchouén. Hunahpú and Xbalanqué trick them into climbing a tree whereupon they turn into monkeys.
  • Xquic's sons discover their father's ball game equipment and make so much noise that they are summoned by the lords of Xibalbá where they are tested. They outwit the lords and ascend to the night sky as constellations.

Part 3

  • The first four men are made: Balam-Quitze, Jaguar Night, Naught, and Wind Jaguar. Their four wives are later created while they sleep.
  • Their descendants developed distinct languages and tribes. and travel to Tulan Zuiva to await the first dawn.
  • Tohil gives fire, but the people let it go out. Tohil requires concessions to get it back, but the Quiché hide themselves in smoke, sneak past Tohil and the others, and re-obtain fire without conditions.
  • First dawn appears, dries out the land, and turns original animals to stone.

Part 4

  • Tohil affects Earth Lords through priests, but his dominion destroys the Quiche.
  • Priests try to abduct tribes for sacrifices; the tribes try to resist this.
  • Quiche finds Gumarcah where Gucumatz (the feathered serpent lord) raises them to power.
  • Gucumatz institutes elaborate rituals.
  • Genealogies of the tribes


[edit] Creation myth

Here is the opening of the creation story, also from Colop's transcription

Are utzijoxik wa‘e
k‘a katz‘ininoq,
k‘a kachamamoq,
  katz‘inonik,
k‘a kasilanik,
k‘a kalolinik,
  katolona puch upa kaj.
"This is the account of how
all was in suspense,
all calm,
  in silence;
all motionless,
all pulsating,
  and empty was the expanse of the sky."

The tradition then credits the creation of humans to the three water-dwelling feathered serpents:

"There was only immobility and silence in the darkness, in the night. Only the Creator, the Maker, Tepeu, Gucumatz, the Forefathers, were in the water surrounded with light. They were hidden under green and blue feathers, and were therefore called Gucumatz [...]"[5]

and to the three other deities, collectively called "Heart of Heaven":

"Then while they meditated, it became clear to them that when dawn would break, man must appear. Then they planned the creation, and the growth of the trees and the thickets and the birth of life and the creation of man. Thus it was arranged in the darkness and in the night by the Heart of Heaven who is called Huracán. The first is called Caculhá Huracán. The second is Chipi Caculhá. The third is Raxa Caculhá. And these three are the Heart of Heaven."[6]

Together, these gods attempted to create human beings to venerate and praise them. Their first attempts proved unsuccessful. They attempted to make men of mud, but they could neither move nor speak. After destroying the mud men, they tried again by creating wooden creatures that could speak but had no soul or blood and quickly forgot their creators; who destroyed the creatures by tearing them apart. In their final attempt, the "true people" were successfully made out of maize:

"After that they began to talk about the creation and the making of our first mother and father; of yellow corn and of white corn they made their flesh; of cornmeal dough they made the arms and the legs of man. Only dough of corn meal went into the flesh of our first fathers, the four men, who were created."[7]

[edit] History of Popol Vuh

The oldest surviving account of Popol Vuh is contained in a manuscript compiled by Father Francisco Ximénez of the Order of Santo Domingo around the turn of the 18th century.[8] His manuscript is presently housed in The Newberry Library (Chicago, IL, USA) where it is catalogued as VAULT Ayer ms 1515.[6] Most scholars believe that Ximénez copied an earlier manuscript written in the 16th century by a literate K'iche' noble, but a minority has suggested that Ximénez transcribed an orally transmitted account that had survived until the late 17th century.

[edit] Father Ximénez's Manuscript

Upon the completion of his novitiate in 1691, Father Ximénez was dispatched to work with the natives in San Juan Sacatepéquez.[9] In 1701, Ximénez came to Santo Tomás Chichicastenango (also known as Santo Tomás Chuilá). This town was in the Quiché territory and therefore is probably where Fr. Ximénez first redacted the mythistory.[10][11] Ximénez transcribed and translated the manuscript in parallel Quiché and Spanish collumns (the Quiché having been represented phonetically with Latin and Parra characters). In or around 1714, Ximénez incorporated the Spanish content in book one, chapters 2-21 of his Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de predicadores. Ximénez's manuscripts remaind posthumously in the possession of the Dominican Order until General Francisco Morazán expelled the clerics from Guatemala in 1829/1830 whereupon the Order's documents passed largely to the Universidad de San Carlos.

Americanism, the study of the Americas, was prevalent in European humanist scholarship in the mid 19th century. This spirit brought Moritz Wagner and Carl Scherzer to Central America from 1852 to 1855. The two men arrived in Guatemala City in early May 1854.[12] Scherzer found Ximénez's writings in the university library, noting that there was one particular item "del mayor interes" ('of greater interest'). With assistance from Juan Gavarete, Scherzer made, or had a copy made of the Spanish content from the last half of the manuscript, which he published upon his return to Europe.[13] In 1855, French Abbot Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg also found Ximénez writings in the university library. He mentions Ximénez's Popol Vuh manuscript in three different works from 1857-1871, but never states the library document as the source of 1861 French edition.[14] This led Munro Edmonson to postulate that multiple "original" manuscripts had once existed in Guatemala.[15] Jack Himelblau adopted Edmonson's position in the 1980s, noting that his work was based heavily on Edmonson's edition.[16] However, Scherzer's inventory, Brasseur's physical descriptions of the document, and recent conservation activities at The Newberry would seem to establish that Brasseur "absconded" with the university's volume and took it back to France.[17] After Brasseur's death in 1874, the Mexico-Guatémalienne collection containing Popol Vuh passed to Alphonse Pinart through whom it was sold to Edward E. Ayer. Ayer donated some 17,000 pieces to The Newberry Library over a period from 1897 to 1911. Father Ximénez's transcription-translation of "Popol Vuh" was among them.

Father Ximénez's manuscript sank into obscurity until Adrián Recinos (re)discovered it at The Newberry in 1941. Generally speaking, Recinos receives credit for finding the manuscript and publishing the first direct edition since Scherzer. But Munro Edmonson and Carlos López attribute the first (re)discovery to Walter Lehmann in 1928.[18] Allen Christenson, Néstor Quiroa, Rosa Helena Chinchilla Mazariegos, John Woodruff, and Carlos López all consider the Newberry's volume to be Ximénez's one and only "original."

[edit] A pre-Conquest codex?

Most scholars believe that Ximénez used a phonetic manuscript as his source, although Néstor Quiroa points out that "such a manuscript has never been found, and thus Ximenez's work represents the only source for scholarly studies."[19] Munro Edmonson and Jack Himelblau call the borrowed document "The manuscript of Quiché," and it would have been a phonetic rendering of an oral recitation composed in or around Santa Cruz Quiché shortly following Pedro de Alvarado's 1524 conquest. By comparing the genealogy at the end of Popol Vuh with dated colonial records, Adrián Recinos and Dennis Tedlock narrow the date considerably and place it between 1554 and 1558.[20] One theory (first proposed by Rudolf Schuller) ascribes the phonetic authorship to Diego Reynoso, one of the signatories of the Titulo de Totonicapán.[21] Another possible author could have been Don Cristóbal Velasco, who, also in Titulo de Totonicapán, is listed as "Nim Chokoh Cavec" ('Great Steward of the Kaweq').[22][23] In either case, the colonial presence is clear in Popol Vuh's preamble:

"This we shall write now under the Law of God and Christianity; we shall bring it to light because now the Popol Vuh, as it is called, cannot be seen any more, in which was clearly seen the coming from the other side of the sea and the narration of our obscurity, and our life was clearly seen. The original book, written long ago, existed, but its sight is hidden to the searcher and to the thinker."[24]

Accordingly, the need to "preserve" the content presupposes a possible disappearance of the content, and therefore, Edmonson and Himelblau theorized a pre-Columbian glyphic codex that they term "The Manuscript of Utatlán." No evidence of such a codex has yet been found.

A minority, however, disputes the existence of pre-Ximénez texts on the same basis that is used to argue their existence. Both positions are based on two statements by Ximénez. The first of these comes from Historia de la provincia where Ximénez writes that he found phonetic Quiché texts in the curacy of Santo Tomás Chichicastenango that were guarded with such secrecy "that not even a trace of it was revealed among the elder ministers" although "almost all of them have it memorized."[25] The second passage used to argue pre-Ximénez texts comes from Ximénez's addendum to "Popol Vuh." There he states that many of the natives' practices can be "seen in a book that they have, something like a prophecy, from the beginning of their [pre-Christian days], where they have all the months and signs corresponding to each day, one of which I have in my possession."[26] Scherzer explains in a footnote that what Ximénez is referencing "is only a secret calendar" and that he himself had "found this rustic calendar previously in various indigenous towns in the Guatemalan highlands" during his travels with Wagner.[27] This presents a contradiction because the item which Ximénez has in his possession is not Popol Vuh, and a carefully guarded item is not likely to have been easily available to Ximénez.

[edit] Corroborating Studies in Classical maya art

Contemporary archaeologists have found depictions of stories apparently from the Popol Vuh in Mayan art such as the Maya Hero Twins (in particular the shooting of Vucub-Caquix and the restoration of the Twins' dead father), the Howler Monkey Gods..[28] Michael D. Coe has identified polychrome depictions of portions of the Popol Vuh's storyline in some polychrome Maya pottery. More recently, Richard D. Hansen has found a frieze of Hunahpú and Xbalanqué at the site of El Mirador.[29] These observations open up the possibility that the accompanying sections of hieroglyphical text are ancestral to passages from the Popol Vuh and that the mythological framework presented in the Popol Vuh has its roots in shared pan-Maya mythology of the classic period.[30]

[edit] Modern editions

Since Brasseur's and Scherzer's first editions, the Popol Vuh has been translated into many other languages.[31] The Spanish edition by Adrián Recinos is still a major reference, as is Recino's English translation by Delia Goetz. Other English translations[32] include those of Munro Edmonson (1985) and Dennis Tedlock (1985, 1996). Tedlock's version is notable because it builds on commentary and interpretation by a modern K'iche' daykeeper, Andrés Xiloj. Augustín Estrada Monroy published a fascimile edition in the 1970s and Ohio State University has a digital version and transcription online. Modern transcriptions of the K'iche' text have been published by, among others, Sam Colop (1999) and Allen J. Christenson (2004). The tale of Hunahpu and Xbalanque has also been rendered as an hour-long animated film by Patricia Amlin.

[edit] Popol Vuh Traditions in Ancient Maya Culture

The Popol Vuh establishes the importance of corn in Mayan culture and the relationship between the human world and the gods. After several failed attempts, the gods successfully created humans from corn. Hun Hunahpu, representing the Maize God, was decapitated and from his head grew a stalk of corn. The acts of decapitation and sacrifice correspond to harvesting corn and the sacrifices accompanying planting and harvesting.[33] Planting and harvesting also relate to Maya astronomy and calendar; the cycles of the moon and sun directly influenced crop seasons.[34] This association between corn and the cosmic world reinforced its importance in Maya culture.

After defeating the Maya Death Gods gods of Xibalba, the Hero Twins made a distinction in sacrifices: human blood is reserved for celestial gods, while animals are sacrificed to the gods of Xibalba.[35] Most records indicate that, as the Maya civilization engaged in more power struggles, sacrifices increased as well.[36] Defeat of captives, like the defeat of Xibalba gods, symbolized Mayan superiority. Though it is debated if games between captives and warriors were rigged, the Hero Twins employed deception to win, which set a precedent in ritual play.[37]

[edit] Popol Vuh in contemporary K'iche' culture

The Popol Vuh continues to be an important part in the belief system of many K'iche'.[citation needed] Although Catholicism is generally seen as the dominant religion, some believe that many natives practice a syncretic blend of Christian and indigenous beliefs. Some stories from the Popol Vuh continued to be told by modern Maya as folk legends; some stories recorded by anthropologists in the 20th century may preserve portions of the ancient tales in greater detail than the Ximénez manuscript. 

[edit] Reflections in Western culture

Since its rediscovery by Europeans in the 19th century, the Popol Vuh has attracted the attention of many authors. For example, the myths and legends included in Louis L'Amour's novel The Haunted Mesa are largely based on the Popol Vuh. The text was also used by German film director Werner Herzog as extensive narration for the first chapter of his movie Fata Morgana (1971).

[edit] References and notes

  1. ^ According to Allen Christenson, the mat was a common Maya metaphor for kingship (like "throne" in English) and national unity.
  2. ^ Junajpu and Xb’alanke in Modern K'iche' spelling
  3. ^ Recinos explains: "The original manuscript is not divided into parts or chapters; the text runs without interruption from the beginning until the end. In this translation I have followed the Brasseur de Bourbourg division into four parts, and each part into chapters, because the arrangement seems logical and conforms to the meaning and subject matter of the work. Since the version of the French Abbe is the best known, this will facilitate the work of those readers who may wish to make a comparative study of the various translations of the Popol Vuh" (Goetz xiv; Recinos 11-12; Brasseur, Popol Vuh, xv)
  4. ^ Goetz 89
  5. ^ Goetz 81-82)
  6. ^ Goetz 82
  7. ^ Goetz 167
  8. ^ Tedlock 1986:30; Quiroa 2001; López 2007:126; Woodruff 2009; Chinchilla Mazariegos (Rosa Helena) 1993; Newberry Library [1]. Specifically, Tedlock states that Father Ximénez "made the only surviving copy of the Quiche text of the Popol Vuh and added a Spanish translation" (qtd. in López 2007:126).
  9. ^ Rodríguez Cabal 1935
  10. ^ See Tedlock's  definition and usage of this term.
  11. ^ Ximénez's title page reads in part, "cvra doctrinero por el real patronato del pveblo de Sto. Tomas Chvila" ('doctrinal priest of the district of Santo Tomás Chuilá').
  12. ^ Woodruff 2009
  13. ^ Scherzer also published a detailed inventory of the contents in 1857 edition that coincides with the Ayer ms. Scherzer's copyscript and edition began at the third internal title: 1) Arte de las tres lengvas Kakchiqvel, Qvíche y Zvtvhil, 2) Tratado segvndo de todo lo qve deve saber vn mínístro para la buena admínístraçíon de estos natvrales, 3) Empiezan las historias del origen de los indíos de esta provinçia de Gvatemala, 4) Escolíos a las hístorías de el orígen de los indios [note: spelling is that of Ximénez, but capitalization is modified here for stylistic reasons].
  14. ^ See Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale (1857), Popol vuh. Le livre sacré et les mythes de l'antiquité américaine, avec les livres héroïques et historiques des Quichés (1861), and Bibliothèque Mexico-Guatémalienne (1871). It was not until fifteen years after his return to Europe that Brasseur offered any specific provenance of his source material and then asserted that it had come from Ignacio Coloche in Rabinal. That assertion contradicts Brasseur's description Histoire des nations civilisées.
  15. ^ Edmonson 1971
  16. ^ Himelblau 1989
  17. ^ Woodruff 2009 p.46,47
  18. ^ Edmonson 1971 p.viii; Lopez 2007
  19. ^ Quiroa, "Ideology" 282)
  20. ^ Recinos 30-31 (1947); Goetz 22-23(1950); Tedlock 56 (1996)
  21. ^ Recinos 34; Goetz 27; see also Akkeren 2003 and Tedlock 1996.
  22. ^ Christenson 2004
  23. ^ After the list of rulers, the narrative recounts that the three Great Stewards of the principal ruling Quiché lineages were "the mothers of the word, and the fathers of the word"; and the "word" has been interpreted by some to mean the Popol Vuh itself.[citation needed] Since a prominent place is given to the Kaweq lineage at the end of Popol Vuh, the author / scribe / narrator / storyteller may have belonged to this lineage as opposed to another Quiché lineage.
  24. ^ Goetz 79-80
  25. ^ "y así determiné el trasuntar de verbo ad verbum todas sus historias como las traduje en nuestra lengua castellana de la lengua quiché, en que las hallé escritas desde el tiempo de la conquista, que entonces (como allí dicen), las redujeron de su modo de escribir al nuestro; pero fue con todo sigilo que conservó entre ellos con tanto secreto, que ni memoria se hacía entre los ministros antiguos de tal cosa, e indagando yo aqueste punto, estando en el curato de Santo Tomás Chichicastenango, hallé que era la doctrina que primero mamaban con la leche y que todos ellos casi lo tienen de memoria y descubrí que de aquestos libros tenían muchos entre sí [...]"(Ximenez 1999 p.73; English translation by WP contributor)
  26. ^ "Y esto lo ven en un libro que tienen como pronostico desde el tiempo de su gentilidad, donde tienen todos los meses y signos correspondientes á cada dia, que uno de ellos tengo en mi poder" (Scherzer 1857; English translation by WP contributor). This passage is found in Escolios a las historias as appearing on p. 160 of Scherzer's edition.
  27. ^ "El libro que el padre Ximenez menciona, no es mas que una formula cabalistica, segun la cual los adivinos engañadores pretendían pronosticar y explicar ciertos eventos. Yo encontré este calendario gentilico ya en diversos pueblos de indios en los altos de Guatemala."
  28. ^ Chinchilla Mazariegos 2003
  29. ^ AuthenticMaya.com, [2]. CNN report, October 14, 2009, [3]. CNN report, November 1, 2009, [4]. Full series of CNN reports on recent Mirador discoveries, [5]
  30. ^ Kerr 1992
  31. ^ Schultze Jena 1944
  32. ^ Low 1992
  33. ^ Heather Irene McKillop, The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives (London: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006), 214.
  34. ^ McKillop, 214.
  35. ^ McKillop, 214.
  36. ^ McKillop, 215.
  37. ^ McKillop, 215.

[edit] Bibliography

Akkeren, Ruud van (2003). "Authors of the Popol Vuh". Ancient Mesoamerica 14: 237–256. ISSN 0956-5361. 
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Étienne (1861). Popol vuh. Le livre sacré et les mythes de l'antiquité américaine, avec les livres héroïques et historiques des Quichés. Paris: Bertrand. 
Chávez, Adrián Inés (ed.) (1981). Popol Wuj: Poema mito-histórico kí-chè (edición guatemalteca ed.). Quetzaltenango, Guatemala: Centro Editorial Vile. OCLC 69226261. 
Chinchilla Mazariegos, Oswaldo (2003). Los dioses del Popol Vuh en el arte maya clásico = Gods of the Popol Vuh in Classic Maya Art. Guatemala City: Museo Popol Vuh, Universidad Francisco Marroquín. ISBN 99922-775-1-3. OCLC 54755323.  (Spanish) (English)
Chinchilla Mazariegos, Rosa Helena ed. (1993). Arte de las tres lenguas: Kaqchikel, K'iche' y Tz'utujil. By Francisco Ximénez. Biblioteca Goathemala. 31. Acad de Geografía e Historia de Guatemala. (Spanish)
Christenson, Allen J. (trans.) (2004). Popol Vuh: Literal Poetic Version: Translation and Transcription.. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3841-1. 
Colop, Sam; (ed.) (1999). Popol Wuj: versión poética K‘iche‘.. Quetzaltenango; Guatemala City: Proyecto de Educación Maya Bilingüe Intercultural; Editorial Cholsamaj. ISBN 99922-53-00-2. OCLC 43379466.  (K'iche')
Edmonson, Munro S.; (ed.) (1971). The Book of Counsel: The Popol-Vuh of the Quiche Maya of Guatemala. Publ. no. 35. New Orleans: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University. OCLC 658606. 
Estrada Monroy, Agustín; (ed.) (1973). Popol Vuh: empiezan las historias del origen de los índios de esta provincia de Guatemala (Facsimile reproduction of Ximénez's manuscript, with notes ed.). Guatemala City: Editorial "José de Piñeda Ibarra". OCLC 1926769. 
Goetz, Delia, and Sylvanus Griswold Morley, trans. (1950). Popol Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Ancient Quiché Maya By Adrián Recinos (1st ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 
Himelblau, Jack J. (1989). Quiché Worlds in Creation: The Popol Vuh as a Narrative Work of Art. California: Labyrinthos. 
Kerr, Justin (1992). "the Myth of the Popol Vuh as an Instrument of Power". in Elin C. Danien, Robert J. Sharer, University of Pennsylvania. University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. New theories on the ancient Maya. Volume 77 of University Museum monograph. University Museum Symposium Series. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. ISBN 0924171138. 
López, Carlos M. (2007). "The Popol Wuj in Ayer MS 1515 Is a Holograph by Father Ximénez". Latin American Indian Literatures 23 (2): 112-41. 
Low, Denise (Summer/Fall 1992). "A comparison of the English translations of a Mayan text, the Popol Vuh" (reproduced online). Studies in American Indian Literatures, Series 2 (New York: Association for Study of American Indian Literatures (ASAIL)) 4 (2–3): 15–34. ISSN 0730-3238. OCLC 54533161. http://oncampus.richmond.edu/faculty/ASAIL/SAIL2/42.html. Retrieved 2008-05-26. 
McKillop, Heather Irene (2006). The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives. London: W.W. Norton & Co.. 
Quiroa, Néstor Ivan (2002). "Francisco Ximénez and the Popol Vuh: Text, Structure, and Ideology in the Prologue to the Second Treatise". Colonial Latin American Historical Review 11 (3): 279-300. 
Quiroa, Néstor Ivan (2001). The “Popol Vuh” and the Dominican Friar Francisco Ximénez: The Maya-Quiché Narrative As a Product of Religious Extirpation in Colonial Highland Guatemala. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 
Recinos, Adrián; (ed.) (1985). Popol Vuh: las antiguas historias del Quiché (6th edn ed.). San Salvador, El Salvador: Editorial Universitaria Centroamericana. OCLC 18385790. 
Rodríguez Cabal, Juan (1935). Apuntes para la vida del m.r.p. presentado y predicador general fr. Francisco Ximénez, O.P.. Guatemala: Tipografía Nacional. 
Sáenz de Santa María, Carmelo, ed (1985). Primera parte del tesoro de las lenguas cakchiquel, quiché y zutuhil, en que las dichas lenguas se traducen a la nuestra, española. 30. Guatemala. 
Scherzer, Carl, ed (1857). Las historias del origen de los indios de esta provincia de Guatemala. Vienna: Carlos Gerold e hijo. 
Schultze Jena, Leonhard (trans.) (1944). Popol Vuh: das heilige Buch der Quiché-Indianer von Guatemala, nach einer wiedergefundenen alten Handschrift neu übers. und erlautert von Leonhard Schultze. Stuttgart, Germany: W. Kohlhammer. OCLC 2549190. ltze
Stross, Brian (1991). "Review of Patricia Amlin (1989), Popol Vuh: The Creation Myth of the Maya. Animated movie (60 min.). University of California at Berkeley, Extension Media Center.". American Anthropologist, New Series 93 (1): 258-259.. http://www.jstor.org/stable/681573. Retrieved 2009-08-03.. 
Tedlock, Dennis; (trans.) (1985 (revised 1996)). Popol Vuh: the Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings. with commentary based on the ancient knowledge of the modern Quiché Maya. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-45241-X. OCLC 11467786. 
Tedlock, Dennis (1992). "The Popol Vuh as a Hieroglyphic Book". in Elin C. Danien, Robert J. Sharer, University of Pennsylvania. University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. New theories on the ancient Maya. Volume 77 of University Museum monograph. University Museum Symposium Series. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. ISBN 0924171138. 
Woodruff, John M. (2009). The “most futile and vain” Work of Father Francisco Ximénez: Rethinking the Context of Popol Vuh. The University of Alabama. 
Ximénez, Francisco (1999). Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María. ed. Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de predicadores. Vol. 1/2. Mexico. 
Ximénez, Francisco (ca. 1701) (ms). Arte de las tres lengvas achiqvel, Qvíche y ,vtvhil ~ Tratado segvndo de todo lo qve deve saber vn ministro para la bvena administraçion de estos natvrales ~ Empiezan las historias del origen de los indios de esta provinçia de Gvatemala ~ Escolios a las historias de el origen de los indios. Chicago: VAULT Ayer MS 1515. The Newberry Library. 

[edit] External links

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