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Pedro II (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈpedɾu seˈɡũdu]; 2 December, 1825 – 5 December, 1891), nicknamed "the Magnanimous"[1][2] was the second and last Emperor of Brazil, having reigned for 58 years.[3] His name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. When anglicised, his name would be Peter II, full name Peter of Alcantara John Charles Leopold Salvador Vivian Francis Xavier of Paula Leocadio Michael Gabriel Raphael Gonzaga. He was born on December 2, 1825, in Rio de Janeiro, the seventh child of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil and Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria. As a member of the Brazilian Royalty, he held the honorific title "Dom"[4] (In English:[5][6] Don)[7]. Emperor Pedro II is usually considered the greatest Brazilian.[1][8][9]
[edit] Early years[edit] Prince ImperialPedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga[1][10][11][12] was born after a childbirth that lasted for more than five hours at 2:30 a.m. on 2 December 1825.[13][14][15] His name, as well as his father's, was a homage to saint Peter of Alcantara.[16][17] At the same day he was presented by Brigadier General Francisco de Lima e Silva, the Empress' veador (gentleman usher) to members of the Brazilian Government in the Palace of São Cristóvão.[11][13][18] He was only 47 centimeters tall[19] and was considered a fragile and sickly child, having inherited the epilepsy of the Spanish Bourbon.[20][21] He was baptized a few days later, in 9 December[11][19][22] and had his elder sister Maria as his godmother[10] and his own father as godfather.[23]  Pedro I invited Dona Mariana de Verna Magalhães Coutinho (later Countess of Belmonte in 1844) for the position of aia (supervisor) of his son.[24][25] Mariana de Verna was a Portuguese widow, considered a cultured, honored and kind woman.[21][24][26] Pedro II called her "Dadama" as he did not pronounce correctly the word "dame" as a child.[24] However, he would continue calling her that way even as an adult, but by affection as he treated her as his surrogate mother.[10][13][21][24][27] As the son of Emperor Pedro I, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza which was, in turn, an illegitimate branch of the Capetian dynasty. He was, therefore, grandson of João VI and nephew of Miguel I.[23][28] His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina, daughter of Francis II, last Holy Roman Emperor. Through his mother he was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France, Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico.[22][28][29][30] Having been born after the recognition of Brazilian independence (25 November 1825),[31] he was considered a foreigner under Portuguese law.[32] Therefore his elder sister became Queen of Portugal as Maria II after the abdication of Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal) in 28 May 1826.[33][34] However, he was the only legitimate male child of Pedro I to survive childhood and became the heir of the Brazilian crown of his father as Prince Imperial and officially recognized as such in 6 August 1826.[10][24] Empress Leopoldina died in 11 December 1826, days after the stillbirth of a male child[35][36], when Pedro was one year old.[21][30][34] Pedro would not have any memory of his own mother but only what he would be later told about.[21][37] His father was married two and half years later to Amélie of Leuchtenberg. Prince Pedro spent little time with his stepmother who would definitively leave the country two years later. But it seems that they had had an affectionate relationship[36][38][39] and both would keep contact with each other until her death in 1878.[40] Pedro I abdicated the imperial crown 7 April 1831, after a long conflict with the federalist liberals and opted to go to Portugal to reclaim the crown of his daughter which had been usurped by his brother Miguel I.[41][42] The Prince Imperial Pedro became, thus, "Dom Pedro II, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil".[15][43][44] [edit] The Regency[edit] AccessionWhen the five year old Pedro awoke on 7 April 1831, beside him on the bed lay his father's imperial crown.[45] Pedro I and his wife[46] had already left Brazilian soil and boarded the British frigate Warspite. Pedro II wrote a letter of farewell to his father aided by Mariana de Verna.[45] On receipt of this, a tearful Pedro I composed a reply, calling the little boy "My beloved son, and my Emperor."[45][47]. His father and stepmother remained on board the Warspite another five days before leaving for Europe, but they did not see the young emperor during that period … or ever again.[48] For the remainder of his life, Pedro I would become distressed with his children's absence and fretted about their futures. Pedro II missed his father and stepmother (who had assumed his mother's role), and this may account for his later lack of any emotional display in public.[46] Three of his sisters stayed behind in Brazil with Pedro II: Januária, Paula and Francisca.  Pedro II was acclaimed as the new Brazilian Emperor on 9 April.[44] Bewildered by his parents' abandonment and frightened by the large crowds and thundering artillery salutes, he wept inconsolably as he was taken, with Mariana de Verna at his side, by carriage up to the City Palace.[45][47] The frightened Emperor Pedro II was displayed along with his sisters at one of the windows of the palace. He stood atop a chair so that he could be seen by and observe the acclamation of the assembled thousands.[45][49] The Brazilians were touched by this "figure of the small orphan who would rule them one day."[50] The entire ordeal, followed by the roar of saluting cannon, was so traumatic for the little emperor that it may account for his noted aversion to pomp as an adult.[51] His elevation as emperor ushered in a period of crisis, the most troublesome in Brazil's history.[52] As Pedro II could not exert his constitutional prerogatives as Emperor (Executive and Moderating Power) until he reached majority, a regency was created. The first regency consisted of a triumvirate, and one of its members was the same Brigadier General Francisco de Lima e Silva who had presented the infant Pedro to the Government more than five years previously.[41] Disputes between political factions resulted in an unstable, almost anarchical, regency. The Liberals which had ousted Pedro I soon split into two factions: moderate liberals (constitutional monarchists who would later split into the Liberal Party and Conservative Party)[53] and republicans (a small minority, but radical and highly rebellious).[54] There were also the restorationists who had been previously known as Bonifacians.[54] Several rebellions erupted during the regency.[55] The first were the Rebellion of Santa Rita (1831),[56] the Revolt of the Year of the Smoke (1833)[57] and the Cabanada (or War of the Cabanos, 1832-34)[58][59], which sought the return of Pedro I and which had the support of common people, former slaves, and even slaves.[60][61] The death of Pedro I on 24 September 1834[62] ended their hopes.[53][63] The promulgation of the Additional Act in 1834, an constitutional amendment that gave higher administrative and political provincial decentralization, exacerbated conflicts between political parties, as whichever dominated the provinces would also gain control over the electoral and political system. Those parties which lost elections rebelled and tried to assume power by force.[64] Rebellious factions, however, continued to uphold the throne of Pedro II as a way of giving the appearance of legitimacy to their actions (that is, they were not in revolt against the monarchy per se). The Cabanagem (1835-40),[58] the Sabinada (1837-38)[58] and the Balaiada (1838-41),[58][65] all followed this course, even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics (but only so long as Pedro II was a minor).[66] The exception was the Farroupilha (or War of Tatters, 1835-45), which began as another dispute between political factions in the province of Rio Grande do Sul[64] but quickly evolved into a separatist rebellion financed by the Argentine dictator Don Manuel Rosas.[67] But even in this case, the majority of the province's population, including the largest and most prosperous cities, remained loyal to the Empire.[68] [edit] GuardianshipUpon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his children. The first was his friend José Bonifácio, whom he nominated as guardian,[44][69] a position which was later confirmed by the General Assembly.[44][45] The second was Mariana de Verna, who had occupied the position of aia (supervisor) from the birth of Pedro II.[70] The third person was Rafael, an afro-Brazilian veteran of the Argentina-Brazil War[70][71]. Rafael was an employee in the Palace of São Cristóvão whom Pedro I deeply trusted and asked to look after his son—a charge which he carried out during the rest of his life.[10][71] José Bonifácio was dismissed from his position in December 1833.[51] His relationship with the liberal-dominated regency became unsustainable[51] due to his leadership of the restorationist faction which desired to recall Pedro I[51][72] and install him as regent until Pedro II attained majority.[73][74] The General Assembly nominated Manuel Inácio de Andrade, Marquis of Itanhaém as his replacement.[62][75][76] Itanhaém was chosen for the post because he was considered submissive and easily manipulated.[77] The new guardian proved to be a man of mediocre intelligence,[75] though honest.[77] He was wise enough to provide the young Emperor with an extraordinary education. The guardian had a "great influence on the democratic character and thought of Pedro II."[78] The professors who were already teaching Pedro II and his sisters under José Bonifácio were retained by the new guardian.[79] The exception was Friar Pedro de Santa Mariana who was nominated to occupy the place of aio (supervisor) formerly held by Friar Antonio de Arrábida (who had tutored Pedro I as a child).[80][81] General supervision of Pedro II's education fell to Friar Pedro Mariana, and he took personal charge of his Latin, religion and mathematics studies. He was one of the few people outside his family for whom Pedro II held great affection.[82] Among the precepts which Itanhaém and Friar Pedro Mariana sought to instill in Pedro II were that all human beings should be considered as his equals, that he should seek to be impartial and just, that public servants and ministers of state should be carefully watched, that he should not have favourites, and that his concern should always be for the public welfare.[81] Both had as an objective "to make a human, honest, constitutional, pacifist, tolerant, wise and just monarch. That is, a perfect ruler, dedicated integrally to his obligations, above political passions and private interests."[83] [edit] EducationThe education of Pedro II began while he was still heir to throne, and he learned to read and write in Portuguese at age five. His first tutors were Mariana de Verna and Friar Antonio de Arrábida.[84] When he became Emperor he already had several professors. Amongst these were Félix Taunay (father of Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay) and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva (son of the regent Francisco de Lima e Silva), who taught French and Fencing respectively, and towards both of whom he developed life-long friendship and admiration.[85][86] Pedro II passed the entire day studying[83] with only two hours reserved for amusements.[50] He would wake up at 6.30 a.m. and begin studies at seven, continuing until 10 p.m., after which he would go to bed.[87] The disciplines were diverse, including everything from languages, history, philosophy, astronomy, physics, geography and music, to hunting, riding and fencing.[50] Great care was taken to guide him away from his father's example in matters related to education, character and personality.[62][88] He would learn throughout his life to speak and write not only his native Portuguese, but also Latin, French, German, English, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Chinese, Occitan, Tupi and Guarani.[89][90][91] His passion for reading allowed him to assimilate any information.[92] Pedro II, was not a genius,[34] although he was intelligent and possessed a facility for accumulating knowledge.[93] As a constitutional monarch, his education was followed closely by the General Assembly, which demanded from Itanhaém progress reports concerning his studies.[78] During this time, Pedro II was kept unaware of events occurring outside the palace, including political matters.[75] The Emperor experienced an unhappy and solitary childhood.[10][94] He was considered precocious, docile and obedient,[92][95] but frequently cried and often nothing seemed to please him.[94] He "was not raised in luxury and everything was very simple."[96] As his sisters could not accompany him at other times[83], he only had permission to meet them after lunch,[95] and even then for only one hour.[62] He had few friends of his age, and the only one he retained into adulthood was Luís Pedreira do Couto Ferraz, future Viscount of Bom Retiro.[70][87][95] However, he was treated tenderly by Mariana de Verna and also by Rafael, who played with him by carrying him on his shoulders[70] and who also allowed Pedro II to hide in his room to escape from studies.[10] For the greater part of his time, he was surrounded by servants who only had permission to speak to him when questioned.[62] The environment in which Pedro II was raised turned him into a shy and needy person[78][97] who saw in "books another world where he could isolate and protect himself."[81][98] Behind the "pomp of the monarchy, of the self-sufficient appearance, there may have lived an unhappy man."[97] [edit] The "Courtier Faction" From 7 April 1831 Pedro II was titular Emperor of Brazil.[99] But he would only be able to exercise his constitutional prerogatives upon reaching the age of majority at 18. This would not occur until 2 December 1843.[99][100][101][102][103] The possibility of lowering the age of majority was floated for the first time in 1835 by the conservatives.[100][103][104] On 12 October 1835, the liberal Diogo Antônio Feijó was elected sole regent after the 1834 Additional Act dispensed with the triumvirate regency.[105] He "lacked the vision, flexibility, and resources needed to guide Brazil under conditions which had prevailed since the death of Pedro I and the passage of the Ato Adicional"[106] (Additional Act). Feijó resigned his position as regent in 1837, and the conservative Pedro de Araújo Lima (later Marquis of Olinda) was elected as his replacement.[107] One of the main goals of Olinda was "to enforce respect for established authority",[108] and thus "traditional ceremonies and practices surrounding the monarch, suspended since Pedro I's abdication, were revived."[108] The "campaign to inculcate deference and respect for the young emperor found ready acceptance throughout Brazil."[109] Fearful that their adversaries would perpetuate themselves in power, the liberals had also begun to call for lowering the age of majority.[110] The "youth and inexperience of the emperor could even be an advantage. Without experience, he might be manipulated by whoever brought him to power."[111] The liberals allied themselves with the former restorationists, now led by Antônio Carlos and Martim Francisco, brothers of the ex-guardian José Bonifácio de Andrada (who had died in 1838).[111] The bill proposed by the conservatives to lower the age of majority was defeated in the Senate on May 17, 1840 by a margin of 18 votes to 16.[111][112] In contrast to the conservatives, liberals were unscrupulous in ignoring the law to attain their goals and decided to immediately declare Pedro II of age. To accomplish this required the support of the three most powerful people in the imperial court: Aureliano de Sousa e Oliveira Coutinho, Paulo Barbosa da Silva and Mariana de Verna.[86][113][114] Aureliano Coutinho, the powerful minister of Justice, had managed to appoint Paulo Barbosa (a friend of his brother Saturnino de Sousa e Oliveira Coutinho)[115] to the position of steward.[86][116] It was Paulo Barbosa who called the Marquis of Itanhaém[117] to become guardian of the princes and Friar Pedro Mariana to be supervisor[118] of Pedro II. He thought both would submit to his interests. Mariana de Verna, former supervisor and surrogate mother of Pedro II and the current first lady-in-waiting, was esteemed by both Aureliano and Paulo Barbosa.[62] Her daughter was married to a nephew of the steward.[119] All "three liked power and influence for its own sake, interpreted any opposition to their dominance in personal terms, and were ruthless in defense of their position at court."[114] The "alliance of Aureliano, D. Mariana, and Paulo Barbosa, with the marquis of Itanhaém as their adherent, rapidly secured them dominance over the affairs"[120] of the court, as nothing "could be done without their favor and approval, and they consulted only their own interests and those of their friends."[120] The trio became known as the "Courtier Faction" and the "Joana Club" (named after a river called Joana at Paulo Barbosa’s country house where they usually met).[115] Their alliance with the liberals followed as a natural consequence as Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcelos, one of Olinda's ministers, was eager to remove his sworn enemy Paulo Barbosa and the marquis of Itanhaém from the Imperial Household.[121] [edit] Majority and coronationOlinda "found himself in no better circumstances than his predecessor Feijó had been. He lacked the character and skills to impose his authority, while the attempts he did make to take control were seen as presumptuous, a usurpation of a position belonging to the emperor alone."[122] The "generation of politicians who had come to power in the 1830s, following upon the abdication of Pedro I, had learned from bitter experience the difficulties and dangers of government. By 1840 they had lost all faith in their ability to rule the country on their own. They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country's survival."[123] The liberals took the dispute over lowering the age of majority directly to the populace, inciting them to place pressure on the politicians.[124] The Brazilian people supported lowering the age of majority[125] and a popular song was heard in the streets: "We want Pedro the Second,/ Although he is not of age;/ The nation excuses the law,/ and long live the majority!"[102][124][126] As emperor, Pedro II "was the living symbol of the unity of the fatherland [...] This position gave him, in the eyes of public opinion, a higher authority than that of any regent."[127] The conservatives weren’t opposed to the liberal plan, and they (including the regent himself,[128] who would inevitably lose his office) also wished to end the regency.[101][103] Olinda asked Pedro II what he thought about the issue of majority, and he simply answered, "I have not thought about that" and continued, "I have already heard about it, but I have not given it any attention."[128]  A crowd of 3,000 people went to the Senate to demand a declaration of majority.[124] The "supporters of an immediate majority gathered at the Senate and passed a motion, signed by 17 senators (out of 49) and by 40 deputies (out of 101), calling on the emperor to take full powers."[129] A delegation of eight, led by Antônio Carlos de Andrada carrying this declaration, proceeded to the Imperial Palace in São Cristóvão to ask if Pedro II would accept or reject the early declaration of his majority.[124][126][128][129] Pedro II asked for the opinion of Itanhaém and Friar Pedro Mariana (both pawns of the "Courtier Faction"), who convinced him to accept and thus prevent new disorders in the country.[102][130] The emperor would say years later that the liberals had taken advantage of his immaturity and inexperience.[130] He shyly answered "Yes" when asked if he desired the age of majority to be lowered, and "Now" when asked if he would prefer that it come into effect at that moment or if he would wait until his birthday in December.[131][132] On the following day, 23 July 1840, the General Assembly formally declared the 14-year-old Pedro II of age. A crowd of 8,000 people gathered to witness the act.[99][130] There, in the afternoon, the young emperor took the oath of office.[102][133][134] For a second time, Pedro II was acclaimed by the gentry, the Armed Forces and the Brazilian people.[130] "There was not, this time, the panic and weeping of 1831. There was only a young and shy boy divided between the fascination of power and the fear of a new world which, unexpectedly, was being opened to him."[135] The "declaration of Pedro II's majority aroused a general euphoria. A feeling of release and renewal united Brazilians. For the first time since the middle of the 1820s the national government at Rio de Janeiro commanded a general acceptance."[136] Pedro II was acclaimed, crowned and consecrated on 18 July 1841.[137][138] He wore a white robe that had belonged to his grandfather Francis II,[139] an orange pallium made of feathers from the Guianan Cock-of-the-rock (a homage to Brazil's birds and indigenous Brazilian chieftains) woven by Tiriyó Indians especially for the emperor[140] and a green mantle emblazoned with branches of cacao and tobacco, both symbols of the Brazilian empire.[140] After being anointed, he received the Imperial insignia (the Imperial Regalia of Brazil): the Sword (which had belonged to his father[139]), the Scepter (of pure gold[139] with a wyvern on its tip, symbol of the House of Braganza[140]), the Imperial Crown (made especially for the coronation[139] with jewels removed from Pedro I’s crown[141]), the Globe, and the Hand of Justice.[138] [edit] Consolidation[edit] MarriagePedro II had grown and matured by 1843. He was considered a handsome man,[92][142][143] at 1.90 m (6'3") tall[144][145] with blue eyes and blond hair.[128][143][144] He had, however, two physical flaws: a protunding jaw (inherited from his Hapsburg mother's family,[128][146][147] and which in the later 1840s he would try to conceal by letting his beard grow),[147][148] and a high-pitched, childish voice.[94][128][149][150] The "single complaint about Pedro II's behavior as monarch was his lack of social graces, and in particular his taciturnity. Since he rarely volunteered more than a word or two, maintaining a direct conversation with him was next to impossible."[151] That, coupled with emotional immaturity, made ministers of State and courtiers expect that he would improve his behavior and character once he had married.[143] There was also an urgent need to increase the number of heirs to the throne.[151][152] The Brazilian Imperial Family was then reduced to only three people, Pedro II and his sisters Francisca and Januária[151][152] (Paula had died in 1833 from meningitis at age 9).[74] Januária was the heiress presumptive to the throne and held the title of Princess Imperial, while Francisca was second (and last) in the line of succession.[152]  The problem was that Pedro II, although born of one of the most illustrious royal lineages,[153] was considered a poor marital prospect according to standards of European royalty.[153][154][155] This was because Brazil was then a country without much political and economic importance in the international arena.[153][154][155] The Brazilian government hoped to arrange matches with members of the House of Habsburg[155][156][157] and asked Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria and uncle of Pedro II, to assist in this.[153] However, Ferdinand was mentally handicapped and Prince von Metternich was the power behind Austria's throne.[158] Metternich was not at all interested in collaborating with the Brazilian Empire.[155][159][160] The reason was a deep resentment he held against Pedro I (Pedro II's father). In 1834 the liberal and constitutionalist Pedro I defeated and dethroned his absolutist brother Miguel I, who was supported by the reactionary Metternich.[161] The diplomat Bento da Silva Lisboa (son of José da Silva Lisboa, Viscount of Cairu, councilor of Dom João VI) was made plenipotentiary minister to deal with marriage arrangements,[155][157][162][163][164] and departed for Vienna on 12 December 1840.[162] Lisboa remained for about a year in Vienna while being ignored by Metternich. Eventually, he met Vicenzo Ramirez, minister of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, who offered the hand of Princess Teresa Cristina (daughter of Francis I and sister of Ferdinand II, both kings of the Two Sicilies).[155][159][164][165] Meanwhile, Metternich had changed his mind and planned to marry Pedro II to Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna (daughter of Czar Nicholas I of Russia), but it was already too late.[165][166] On 20 May 1842, both ministers signed a marriage contract between Pedro II and Teresa Cristina.[161][166] The government of the Two Sicilies sent a picture of Teresa Cristina to the Brazilian emperor, and she seemed to be a beautiful young woman.[155][163][167][168] The wedding occurred by proxy on 30 May 1843 in Naples, Pedro II being represented by his fiancée's brother Prince Leopold, Count of Syracuse.[155][169][170] A small Brazilian fleet composed of the frigate Constituição and the corvettes Dois de Julho and Euterpe[171][172] departed for the Two Sicilies on 3 March 1843 to escort the new Empress of Brazil.[173][174] Meanwhile on 27 March 1843, the French frigate Belle Poule arrived in Rio de Janeiro with François d'Orléans, prince de Joinville (son of King Louis-Philippe of France) on board, who had come to ask for the hand of Francisca. Their marriage occurred on 1 May and the couple afterwards sailed for France.[175][176] The Brazilian fleet, accompanied by a Neapolitan naval division consisting of a ship of the line and three frigates, returned with Teresa Cristina on 3 September 1843.[155][175][177][178] Pedro II went aboard immediately to greet his bride, but upon seeing her in person, felt greatly disappointed.[143][179][180][181][182] The picture which had been sent to him was clearly idealized, and the real Teresa Cristina was short, a bit overweight, walked with a pronounced limp and, while not ugly, neither was she pretty.[143][179][181][182] "His hopes and dreams died at that moment. His response was one of visible disgust and rejection. According to one report he turned his back on his bride, and another stated that he was so overcome that he had to sit down. […] He may have done both these things."[143] After a while, he left the ship, and she returned to her cabin. Perceiving his disillusionment, she burst into tears, lamenting that "the emperor did not like me!"[143][155][179] That evening, Pedro II wept on the shoulder of the Steward Paulo Barbosa and complained to the Lady-in-waiting Mariana de Verna, "They have deceived me, Dadama!"[143][180][182] It took several hours to convince him that he could not give up.[143][180][182] Thus, the wedding celebration occurred on the following day, 4 September.[183][184][185] [edit] Establishment of the imperial authorityEmpress Teresa Cristina was accompanied by her brother Prince Louis, Count of Aquila, who married Princess Januária.[186] The relationship between the emperor and the count soon soured.[187] Unlike the young Pedro II, Áquila was an "extrovert with an easy charm, he valued entertainment above study and pleasure above duty."[188] In contrast, the emperor appeared uneasy in social situations, and somewhat insecure and immature.[189] However, the unfavorable comparison soon was eliminated. The Italian prince committed the grave mistake of attempting to acquire a more prominent position in the Brazilian court, an ambition which the "Courtier faction" found threatening to its interests.[190] The steward Paulo Barbosa, ever vigilant against any loss of status at court, aroused Pedro II's fears and insecurities by alleging that Áquila had designs upon the throne.[191] The relationship between the brothers-in-law became unbearable, at which point the count, tired of being mistreated by the emperor, departed with Januária for Europe on 23 October 1844.[192] The suspicions directed towards family members exposed an insecurity and undeveloped sense of judgment which were incompatible with his position as ruler. The emperor's attention was too easily misdirected to gossip, and he too willingly believed baseless allegations of plots directed against himself. This immaturity was exploited by the "Courtier faction" which controlled access to the emperor.[193]  A facção áulica fora, desde o início, implacável com qualquer ameaça a sua hegemonia, real ou imaginária. Todos os gabinetes que subiram desde a maioridade de Pedro II até meados de 1847 caíram ao desagradar à facção. Os irmãos Andrada (Antônio Carlos e Martim Francisco), líderes do primeiro e liberal gabinete e até então aliados dos aúlicos, caíram ao tentar retirar Paulo Barbosa da função de mordomo. O gabinete pediu demissão em massa acreditando que Pedro II se recusaria e assim forçar a renúncia de Aureliano.[194] However, things quickly changed. With adulthood came a flowering of Pedro II's more admirable traits, and a fading of immature vulnerabilities. The emperor became more confident, courteous, and judicious.[195] He no longer allowed others to manipulate his affairs or influence his decisions in governing, and became adroit at handling both personal and official interactions.[196] The shy and suspicious youth became a man who could be sophisticated and charming in social situations.[197] Pedro II "became a highly respected, even beloved, monarch whose dominance of the nation’s affairs was both welcome and unquestioned."[198] Other positive traits flourished, such as his ability to exercise restraint. He learned to be patient and courteous, even under trying circumstances. He no longer allowed his emotions to be drawn out in public. "He was never rude and never lost his temper. He was exceptionally discreet in words and cautious in action."[199] Factors other than adulthood contributed to the beneficial changes: the long "Aureliano tutorship" (which allowed him to master the art of politics), the birth of his first son Afonso in 1845 (which gave him, as a father, a new opportunity to bond emotionally with another person, as well as a sense of purpose and self-worth),[200] and finally but no less importantly, an end to domination by the courtiers.[201] Pedro II sent Paulo Barbosa to serve as diplomatic envoy to Saint Petersburg in mid-1846.[202] With Paulo Barbosa's influence in eclipse, Aureliano Coutinho lost much of his power and soon found himself stripped of his remaining political clout, "the result of an implicit, if unspoken, ban imposed by Pedro II."[203] It is unknown whether the fall of the courtiers was engineered by the emperor directly, or whether he simply took advantage of opportunites which presented themselves to distance himself from their influence. There was no break on a personal level, and both men continued to enjoy friendly relationships with the emperor.[204] The highly successful trip that Pedro II made to the southern provinces during this period improved his self-confidence and at the same time enhanced his reputation and authority.[205] The emperor undertook to travel through areas of Rio Grande do Sul impacted during the Tatter rebellion, and his efforts were well-received.[206] The visit was met with great popular enthusiasm in Santa Catarina and São Paulo (and what is now Paraná).[207] The populace gave many indications of their goodwill and appreciation to him for this personal involvement and concern.[208] It became apparent during 1847 that Pedro II, at the age of 21, had solidified his authority,[209] having laid the groundwork for one of history's most successful reigns and for the ensuing 40 years of peace, freedom, progress and development in Brazil.[210][211][212][213][214][215][216] [edit] Brazil in the international arena
[edit] Growth[edit] The emperor and politics
[edit] Protector of science and arts
[edit] Family and Countess of Barral
[edit] Trip to the northern Brazilian provinces
[edit] Quasi-war with Great Britain
[edit] The War of the Triple AllianceMain article: War of the Triple Alliance [edit] The number one volunteerIn December 1864 the dictator of Paraguay, Francisco Solano López, ordered the capture of the Brazilian civilian steamship Marquês de Olinda, including its passengers and crew members. Immediately afterward, the Paraguayan army invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso (currently the state of Mato Grosso do Sul) without a declaration of war. Four months later, Paraguayan troops invaded Argentina as a prelude to an attack upon the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul.[217][218][219] News of the Paraguayan invasions was received with surprise both by the Brazilian government and the general population.[219] Brazil had previously discounted the war-making potential of neighboring Paraguay.[219] Pedro II, along with the Brazilian people, was infuriated[220] at attacks, which were seen as unjustified, and believed that it was necessary to punish the Paraguayan dictator.[219] This feeling was strengthened by the Emperor's aversion to the caudillos-dictators who were common elsewhere in Latin America.[219]  Nevertheless, Pedro II tried to pacify the nation in a speech from the throne on 6 May 1865 where he addressed concerns such as public health, the economy, and the marriage of his daughters, and during which he calmly made only brief mentions of the ongoing conflict with Great Britain and the Paraguayan invasion.[221] He was particularly opposed to the involvement of the Empire in the problems of the platine region, as he affirmed in his diary in 1862: "After the war against Rosas, I was always a partisan of the abstention of Brazil in the businesses of the Plata, without harm to the national honor and the Brazilian interests." However, he strongly supported the cabinet in its decision to counterattack.[222] The invasion of Rio Grande do Sul became known in the capital on 30 June 1865.[223] Aware of the anarchy in the province and the incapacity and incompetence of the military chiefs in resisting the Paraguayan army, Pedro II decided to go to the front in person.[224] He wrote to the Countess of Barral: "Rio Grande do Sul has been invaded, my place is there".[225][226] As Head of State, he intended to assume command of the Brazilian army.[227] Both the Cabinet and the General Assembly refused to accede to the Emperor's wish.[224][228] The senators and general deputies, using their constitutional prerogatives, refused to grant permission for the travel.[229][230] If something happened to the Emperor, the throne would be inherited by his 18-year old daughter Isabel. The risks to the stability of the country were considered too high at that critical moment.[224] After he also received objections from the Council of State, Pedro II made the memorable pronouncement: "If they can prevent me from going as an Emperor, they can not prevent me from abdicating and going as a Fatherland Volunteer".[224][231][232][233] Thus those Brazilians who signed up to go to war under Decree 3,371 of 7 January 1865[234] became known[228] throughout the nation as the "Fatherland Volunteers." The monarch himself was popularly called the "Number one volunteer."[235][236] Pedro II left for the south on 7 July 1865[223][237] (other authors affirm that he left on 10 July)[225][238] and was greeted by crowds, along with the national hymn and patriotic celebrations. Accompanying him were his son-in-law the Duke of Saxe, his Aide-de-camp General Francisco Xavier Calmon Cabral da Silva (later the 2nd Baron of Itapagipe), the Vice Admiral William Parker, the Minister of War Ângelo Ferraz, his Aide-de-Camp the Marquis of Caxias, Admiral Joaquim Raimundo de Lamare, General Beaurepaire Rohan, and an escort of 300 soldiers.[225][229][239][240] When embarking, he said: "I am the perpetual defender of Brazil, and when my fellow citizens sacrifice their lives in holocaust upon the altar of the fatherland in defense of such saintly cause, I will not be the one who refuses to follow them."[224] [edit] Siege of UruguaianaPedro II disembarked in Rio Grande do Sul on 16 July and proceeded from there by land[241][242] with his escort of 300 men.[243] The trip was made by horse and wagon, and at night the emperor slept in a campaign tent.[243] On 1 August at Caçapava he was joined by his other son-in-law, Gaston d'Orléans, the Count of Eu, who had arrived from Europe where he had been spending his honeymoon.[223][225][244] From Caçapava he traveled to São Gabriel,[245] and on 5 September passed through the Campo do Rosário (Field of the Rosary), where 37 years earlier Brazilian troops were defeated by Argentine and Uruguayan forces.[243][246] General Francisco Xavier Calmon, who had participated in the battle and was traveling with the Emperor, related his memories of the event.[246] In São Gabriel the Emperor said farewell to João Propício Mena Barreto, Baron of São Gabriel, former commander-in-chief of the Brazilian Army during the Uruguayan War, who was dying of tuberculosis.[247] He also visited the hospitals and talked with the wounded.[247] Pedro II also had his first contact with the Paraguayans when he talked with three prisoners of war. He spoke in guarani and offered them an opportunity to return to Paraguay. The Paraguayans refused, alleging that they would be put to death by Lopez for having been taken prisoner.[243] These Paraguayan soldiers, who had hated the monarch without ever having met him, began to admire him greatly and called him Murubichab ("Great Chief" in guarani).[247] The Emperor, for his part, felt pity for the Paraguayan people and was convinced that Lopez’s dictatorship was barbarous and must be overthrown at any cost.[248]  After quickly passing Alegrete Pedro II arrived in Uruguaiana on 11 September, where he joined Admiral Joaquim Marques Lisboa (then Baron of Tamandaré), General João Frederico Caldwell, General Manuel Luis Osório (later Marquis of Erval) and Manuel Marques de Sousa (then Baron of Porto Alegre and also commander of the besieging forces).[247][249][250] Uruguaiana had been taken by the Paraguayans under Lieutenant Colonel Antonio de la Cruz Estigarribia with a force of 10,000 men on 5 August 1865.[223] By the time of the Emperor's arrival, Estigarribia's force was reduced to only 5,500 men, while the besieging army composed of Brazilians, Argentines and Uruguayans was 17,000-strong.[251][252] Pedro II also met the Argentine president Bartolomé Mitre and Uruguayan president Venancio Flores, who were commanding the troops of their respective countries.[248][253] A quarrel developed in the allied camp: Mitre demanded the command of the allied army in accordance with the Treaty of the Triple Alliance. The Brazilian military leaders refused to accept this, since the same treaty affirmed that on Brazilian soil the command would be held by a Brazilian.[254] Pedro II amicably persuaded all to accept his proposal: the allied forces would be divided in three columns, each under the command of a chief of their own nationality, while he would act as a Moderating Power to mediate conflicts between the three commanders, thus becoming de facto and de jure commander of the allied army.[255] The Emperor rode within rifle shot of Uruguaiana to demonstrate his courage, but the Paraguayans did not attack him.[255][256] The strategies proposed by the commanders conflicted: Osório suggested that they should destroy the village using artillery, since all its (Brazilian) inhabitants had run away before it had fallen to the Paraguayans. Tamandaré and Flores, on the other hand, pushed for an initial bombardment followed by an advance of the allied troops. Pedro II wished to prevent the bloodshed of a battle and called on Estigarribia to surrender.[257] Estigarribia did so[258] on the condition that he would surrender only to the Brazilian Emperor, as he did not trust his fellow republicans from Argentina and Uruguay.[251] The Paraguayan troops paraded in front of the allies[251][258] and the sword of Estigarribia was solemnly delivered by the minister Ferraz to Pedro II.[255] By "his example and his actions he had contributed decisively to the expulsion of the Paraguayan invaders from Brazilian soil."[259] The Paraguayans were malnourished and practically naked.[255] Pedro II did not feel proud of the victory and wrote to the Countess of Barral: "Yesterday we entered into Uruguaiana. The enemy was unworthy even of being defeated. What a rabble!"[255] There was a general belief that the war was near its end and that it was only a matter of time until López surrendered. Because of this, Pedro II decided to return to Rio de Janeiro.[251][260][261] Before leaving Uruguaiana, he received the British ambassador Edward Thornton, who publicly apologized on behalf of Queen Victoria and the British Government for the crisis between the empires.[257][258] The emperor considered that this diplomatic victory over the most powerful nation of the world was sufficient and renewed friendly relations between the nations.[258] He returned to Rio de Janeiro and was received with great joy and celebration everywhere.[262] [edit] Sacrifice
[edit] VictoryThe war's cost came to R$614.000:000$000 (see Brazilian currency), which was paid as follows: R$265.000:000$000 from taxes, R$171.000:000$000 from bond sales, R$102.000:000$000 in new money issued, R$27.000:000$000 from internal loans and R$49.000:000$000 from foreign loans. Thus, only 7.9% of the total war debt was composed of external loans.[263] However, the country was so rich, that the government paid off the war debt in only ten years.[264][265] The conflict "brought about a considerable expansion in Brazil's economy, stimulating new forms of production."[266] After more than five years of war, the emperor seemed to have aged twenty years: his blond hair and beard had become completely grey and at age 44 his face seemed to be of a sexagenarian.[267][268][269][270][271] However, Pedro II whose popularity was shaken by the long conflict, immediately recouped it with the final victory.[269][272][273][274] He also turned down the General Assembly's suggestion to create an equestrian statue of him to commemorate the victory and chose instead to use the money to build elementary schools.[275][276][277] [edit] ApogeeThe end of the War of the Triple Alliance ushered in what is considered the "golden age" and apogee of the Brazilian Empire.[278] In a "general way, the 1870s were prosperous for the nation and its monarch. It was a period of social and political progress where the distribution of national wealth began to benefit a greater part of the population."[279] Brazil's international reputation skyrocketed and, with the exception of the United States, was unequalled by any other American nation.[278] Indeed, the "start of the 1870s brought prosperous times for Brazil. Its economy was booming, and schemes for internal development—railroads, shipping lines, and immigrant colonies—proliferated. With slavery destined for extinction and other reforms projected, the prospects for 'moral and material advances' seemed vast."[280] [edit] Racial thoughts and abolitionismFew Brazilians opposed slavery around 1870, and even fewer were openly against it. But among its opponents was Pedro II. He "repudiated the enslaved manpower and he considered it a national shame."[281] The emperor never acquired slaves.[282] The only ones he owned (forty and something) came from an inheritance he received when declared of age in 1840—at which point he immediately set them all free.[283] Around this time he began looking for ways to abolish slavery, even if gradually.[267][284] He affirmed in a letter: "Nobody desires the abolition more strongly than I do."[285] In a private conversation with Louis Agassiz he said: "Slavery is a terrible curse on any nation, and it must, and will, disappear among us [Brazilians]."[286] He was supported by few, among them his sister Dona Francisca and his wife, Teresa Cristina.[286] But "the emperor, who declared several times his intention to assume direction of the abolitionist movement, as expected, took too long to overcome the political obstacles."[287]  Pedro II was not a racist[289] and manifested "great tolerance towards all his subjects, without exception, no matter their color or faith."[290] He also exhibited tolerance towards both Jews (when asked why there were no laws against them in the country, he answered: "I will not attack the Jews, as the God of my religion came from their people")[291] and Muslims (affirming that a sincere reconciliation between the West and the East was necessary).[292] The emperor never adopted ideas, common during the era, espousing racial inequality.[291][293] According to historian Roderick J. Barman:[294]
The abolition of slavery was a delicate subject in Brazil. Slaves were used by everyone, from the richest to the poorest. They worked as house servants, farmers, miners, prostitutes, and gardeners.[295] Slavery was so widespread in the country that many former slaves owned slaves, and cases of slaves who had their own slaves were common.[282][296] So strongly entrenched was this institution, that none of the rebellions which occurred during the regency in the 1830s advocated ending it. Even the Malê Revolt had as a goal only the release of enslaved Muslims.[296] To oppose slavery was seen as being counter to the national interest. Even so, the emperor did not give up. Pedro II despised slave dealers and refused to grant titles of nobility to any of them, including powerful and influential figures at court.[286][297] He threatened to abdicate if the General Assembly (parliament) did not declare the traffic illegal, which was done in 1850.[297] This was his first open move against slavery.[281] As one source supplying new slaves had been eliminated, at the beginning of 1860s Pedro II turned his attention to eliminating the remaining source: the enslavement of children born to slaves.[286][298] On his initiative, legislation was drafted by the Marquis of São Vicente.[286] The War of the Triple Alliance, however, delayed discussion of the proposal by the General Assembly.[287][298] Pedro II openly asked for the gradual eradication of slavery in the Speech from the Throne of 1867.[299] He was heavily criticized (including by the republicans),[300] and his move condemned as "national suicide."[287][301][302] The accusation was aired "that abolition was his personal desire and not that of the nation."[300] Eventually, the nomination of the abolitionist[298] and conservative Viscount of Rio Branco as President of the Council of Ministers made possible the passage of the bill, which was enacted as the Law of Free Birth on 28 September 1871, under which all children born of slave women after that date would be considered free.[303][304] [edit] First trip to Europe
[edit] Religious thoughts
[edit] Travel to the United States
[edit] Second trip to Europe
[edit] DeclineDuring the 1880s, Brazil continued to prosper. Social diversity increased markedly, including the first organized push for women's rights.[305] The country had greatly changed in the five decades since Pedro II's accession to the throne. The liberalism adopted by successive Government cabinets favored private initiatives and resulted in decades of economic prosperity.[306] Brazil's international trade reached a total value of Rs 79.000:000$000 (see Brazilian currency) between 1834 and 1839. This continued to increase every year until it reached Rs 472.000:000$000 between 1886 and 1887 (an annual growth rate of 3.88% since 1839).[307] Brazilian economic growth, especially after 1850, compared well with that of the United States and European nations.[308] The national revenue, which amounted to Rs 11.795:000$000 in 1831, rose to Rs 160.840:000$000 in 1889. By 1858, it was the eighth largest in the world.[309] The per capita income in 1880 was roughly equivalent to that of the United States.[310] To give an idea of the economic potential of the country during the Empire, if "it had been able to sustain the level of productivity achieved in 1780 and managed to increase exports at a pace equal to that verified in the second half of 19th century, its per capita income in 1950 would be comparable to the the average per capita income of the Western European nations".[311]  Development on an immense scale occurred during this period, which anticipated similar initiatives in European countries.[312][313] In 1850, there were 50 factories valued at more than Rs 7.000:000$000. At the end of the Imperial period in 1889, Brazil had 636 factories (representing an annual rate of increase of 6.74% from 1850) valued at approximately Rs 401.630:600$000 (annual growth rate of 10.94% since 1850).[314] The first railroad line with only 15 kilometers was opened on 30 April 1854[315] at a time when many European countries had no rail service.[316] By 1868, there were 718 kilometers of railroad lines[317], and by the end of the Empire in 1889, this had grown to 9,200 kilometers (with another 9,000 kilometers under construction).[318] Brazil was the fifth country in the world to install modern sewers in cities, the third to have sewage treatment,[319] and one of the pioneers in installing telephone lines.[320] Beyond these, it was the first South American nation to adopt public electric illumination (in 1883)[321] and the second in the Americas (behind the United States) to estabilish a telegraphic line connecting it directly to Europe (in 1874).[322] The first telegraph line appeared in 1852 in Rio de Janeiro. By 1889, there were 18,925 kilometers of telegraph lines connecting the country's capital to distant Brazilian provinces such as Pará, and even linking to other South American countries such as Argentina and Uruguay.[323] The Brazilian Empire was admired internationally for its democratic system and for its respect for freedom of speech.[324] In politics there were "solid and competitive parties, an active parliament, a free press, open debate".[325] The Argentine President Bartolomé Mitre called the country a "crowned democracy" and Venezuelan President Rojas Paúl after learning of the emperor's fall said, "It has ended the only republic that existed in [South] America: the Empire of Brazil."[326] The Brazil of the last year of Pedro II's reign was a "prosperous and [internationally] respected" nation[327] which held unchallenged leadership in Latin America.[328] Its navy was the fifth or sixth most powerful in the world in 1889.[329] The Emperor was beloved by the Brazilian people[330] and was regarded with "respect, almost veneration"[331] in North America and Europe due to his democratic, liberal and progressive ideals and actions. The British Prime Minister William Gladstone said that Pedro II was "a model to the Sovereigns of the world" and held him as being a "great and good Sovereign".[332] Brazilian writer Machado de Assis would later remember him as "a humble, honest, well-learned and patriotic man, who knew how to make of a throne a chair [for his simplicity], without diminishing its greatness and respect."[333] When he became emperor in 1831, Brazil was on the verge of fragmentation. Fifty-eight years later, the country had been at peace for more than four decades, slavery had been extinguished, the representative system was consolidated, and the leadership of the military was in civilian hands (something not seen in the Spanish-American countries).[334] Indeed, for "the longevity of his government and the transformations which occurred during its course, no other Head of State has marked more deeply the history of the nation."[335] Even though Brazil was richer and more powerful than ever, though it enjoyed an excellent international reputation, and though Pedro II himself was still extremely popular among his subjects, the Brazilian monarchy itself was dying. [edit] Heirless
[edit] RepublicanismRepublicanism as an enduring political movement appeared in Brazil during December 1870 in Rio de Janeiro with the publishing of a manifesto signed by 57 people and with the creation of the Republican Club.[336][337][338] It represented an "insignificant minority of scholars."[339] There was no repudiation of or desire for eliminating slavery in the manifesto.[336] In 1873, the Republican Party of São Paulo was created, and it affirmed that slavery would have to be resolved by the monarchist (Conservative and Liberal) parties. The reason for this was because many of the republicans from São Paulo were themselves slave-owning farmers.[340] The objective of most republicans was to wait until the death of Pedro II and by a plebiscite or other peaceful means, prevent Princess Isabel from ascending the throne.[337][341][342] Republicanism did not envisage any "social readjustment" (such as improving the quality of life for former-slaves), and they "were not revolutionaries in the deep meaning of the word."[343] The republican movement "had a slow and irregular evolution, concentrated in the provinces south of Bahia"—more precisely in the provinces of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul.[340] It was "an extremely small group"[344] with a "precarious organization in the provinces"[345] and no cohesion or connection among themselves.[344] The only republican faction to achieve political clout was the Republican Party of São Paulo, which managed to elect two deputies to the Chamber of Deputies in 1884,[337] though none were elected to the Empire's last legislature in 1889.[345] In the 1880s "it attracted sympathy in lesser numbers than [slavery] abolitionism, and at a slower pace."[346] Its numbers only increased after 1888, adding new adherents consisting of farmers who had been slave owners and who perceived themselves victims of an unjust abolition of slavery that had not included any type of indemnity to them.[346][347][348] Even so, in 1889 the "avowed republicans were probably a small minority"[349] as the "republican ideals, in reality, had never managed to seduce the people. Its dissemination was restricted to the intellectual and military fields."[350]  As "the republicans themselves recognized, the party did not have size, organization and popular support enough to overthrow the monarchy."[341] Republicanism "did not manage, at any moment of its development, to spur the national soul. It never had the stature to provoke a strong enthusiasm or enlist all forces that were divorcing from the throne."[351] Even with radical propaganda and little interference from the authorities, the Republican Party in existence from the beginning of the 1870s was a small one.[349] It praised republics such as the United States, France and Argentina, while conveniently ignoring progressive monarchies such as the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian countries.[352] In 1889, its members were "spokesmen in public squares and writers of periodicals. They were far from having the power to develop a propaganda that could shake the foundations of the throne."[353] In the "political process of the second empire [reign of Pedro II], the republican party had such a dull and secondary role that it might even have been forgotten; it was unable to influence rationales advocating the regime's dissolution."[354] It was the crisis between the military and the Government, "of very diverse origin and evolution" from the republicanism, which was to prove the main factor in the fall of the monarchy.[353] Pedro II showed no interest in the republican manifesto of 1870.[340] The Marquis of São Vicente, then President of the Council of Ministers, suggested to the Emperor that republicans be forbidden to enter into public service, a practice then common in monarchies. Pedro II answered, "Mr. São Vicente, allow the nation to govern itself and decide whatever [monarchy or republic] they want."[355] The President reprimanded the monarch, "Your Majesty does not have a right to think in that way. The Monarchy is a constitutional doctrine which Your Majesty swore to maintain; it is not incarnate in the person of Your Majesty." But the Emperor did not care and simply answered: "Well, if the Brazilians do not want me as their Emperor, I shall become a teacher instead!"[356][357] The Emperor not only always refused to forbid republicans from becoming public servants, but also hired the republican military officer Benjamin Constant as a professor of mathematics to his grandsons.[358] He allowed open republican activities, including newspapers, assemblies, meetings and political parties,[357] and exempted republican deputies elected to the Chamber of Deputies from swearing allegiance to the crown.[359] The freedom of the Press, "one of the foundations of the regime, kept allowing fierce criticisms and vile caricatures opposing the regime and its public personalities."[360] Pedro II was intransigent in his defense of the unrestricted freedom of speech[360] which had existed in Brazil since independence in 1822.[361] He was accused of being excessively tolerant towards the republicans,[358] but "he did not pay attention to several warnings stating that his behavior undermined the political foundation of the monarchy."[358] In 1889, Pedro II said to José Antonio Saraiva that he would not mind if Brazil became a republic.[362][363] The "Emperor's indifference towards the fate of the regime was also one of the main factors in the fall of the Monarchy."[357] [edit] Military indiscipline
[edit] Third trip to EuropeThe emperor’s health had considerably worsened by 1887 and fever attacks had become common.[364] His personal doctors suggested a trip to Europe for medical treatment.[365][366][367][368] When embarking, he was greeted by a crowd which cried out, "Long live His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil!"[369] He left on 30 June 1887 along with his wife and his grandson Pedro Augusto.[365][368] Once more his daughter Isabel became regent in his place.[370] He remained for a short time in Portugal and traveled on to Paris, where he stayed in the Grand Hotel as usual.[365] There he received Louis Pasteur, Ambroise Thomas, Pierre Émile Levasseur, François Coppée, Alexandre Dumas, fils, Arsène Houssaye, Guerra Junqueiro, and two of Victor Hugo's grandsons, among others.[371] In a conversation with Houssaye the emperor again lamented what he considered a "crown of thorns" he had to bear.[372] Pedro II also saw his old friend Michel Eugène Chevreul, who was by then 102 years old.[372]  The monarch was examined by the French doctors Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, Jean-Martin Charcot and Michel Peter who recommended a visit to the spas at Baden-Baden.[372][373] He remained there for two months and met with old acquaintances, including Wilhelm I of Germany and Leopold II of Belgium.[374] He also visited the tomb of his daughter Leopoldina in Coburg.[375] He returned to Paris on 8 October 1887 and met his sisters Januária and Francisca.[375] From there he traveled to Italy where he was invited by the King of Italy to a dinner along with Victoria of the United Kingdom and Natalija Obrenović, Queen of Serbia.[376] In Florence he unveiled the painting Independence or Death by the Brazilian painter Pedro Américo in the presence of the British Queen, the Serbian queen and Charles I, King of Württemberg.[377] In Milan he met with Cesare Cantù.[377] There his health worsened on 3 May 1888, and he passed two weeks between life and death, even being anointed.[368][378][379] The doctor Charcot came from Paris to assist and administered caffeine by intervenous injection, resulting in an improvement in the emperor's health.[380][381] On 22 May he received news that slavery had been abolished in Brazil.[380] Lying in bed with a weak voice and tears in his eyes, he said, "Great people! Great people!"[380][382][383][384] Pedro II returned to Brazil and disembarked in Rio de Janeiro on 22 August 1888.[381][385] The "whole country welcomed him with an enthusiasm never seen before. From the capital, from the provinces, from everywhere, arrived proofs of affection and veneration. The emotion from those who saw him disembark, frail, thin, with bent body, weak legs, was one most profound."[386] The cadets from the Military College climbed Sugarloaf Mountain and placed a gigantic banner on which was written "Hail."[381][387][388] Such popular enthusiasm directed toward the emperor was not matched even by the celebrations of his majority in 1840, in the Christie Affair of 1864, upon his departure to Rio Grande do Sul in 1865, or even after the victory in the War of the Triple Alliance in 1870.[387][389] "To judge from the general manifestations of affection that the Emperor and the Empress had received on the occasion of their arrival from Europe, in this winter of 1888, no political institution seemed to be so strong as the monarchy in in Brazil."[389] Even former slaves displayed loyalty towards the monarchy and vehemently opposed the republicans, whom they called "the Paulistas."[390] The "monarchy seemed to be at the height of its popularity."[381] Pedro II had reached the pinnacle of his prestige among Brazilians.[391][392] The end of slavery resulted in explicit support of republicanism by the rich and powerful coffee farmers, who held political, economic and social power in the country.[393][394] Although there was no desire in Brazil among the majority of the population to change the form of government,[395] republicans began pressuring the Army and its main leader, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, to overthow the monarchy.[396] [edit] FallOn 9 November 1889, a large number of officers gathered in the Military Club and decided to stage a coup d’etat aimed at the overthrow of the monarchy.[397] Two days later in the house of Rui Barbosa a plan to execute the coup was drawn up by officers who included Benjamin Constant and Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, plus two civilians: Quintino Bocaiúva and Aristides Lobo. It was the only significant meeting in which civilian republicans participated, as Deodoro wished to exclude them from what he considered to be a strictly military matter.[398] Deodoro still hesitated:[398] "I wanted to follow the Emperor's coffin, who is old and whom I deeply respect."[399] But he eventually yielded to pressure: "He [Benjamin Constant] wants it thus, let us make the Republic. Benjamin and I will take care of the military action; Mr. Quintino and his friends will organize everything else."[399] At 11 p.m. on 14 November,[400] Deodoro took command of 600 men, the majority of whom either had no idea of what was occurring or believed that they were organizing a defence against the National Guard or the Black Guard.[401] A few republicans yelled "Hail to the Republic" but Deodoro ordered them to be silent.[402]  Upon learning of the revolt, the President of the Council of Ministers Afonso Celso, Viscount of Ouro Preto, and the other Cabinet ministers went to Army Headquarters, located at the Field of Santana in the heart of the capital.[400][402][403] The supposedly loyal troops there outnumbered and were better equipped than the rebel force.[403] The adjutant-general [Commander] of the Army, Marshal Floriano Peixoto guaranteed his men's loyalty to Ouro Preto, but he was secretly in alliance with the rebels.[402] Floriano and the Minister of the War Rufino Enéias, Viscount of Maracajú (a cousin of Deodoro) ignored repeated orders from Ouro Preto to attack the rebels who were approaching the headquarters.[400][402] He tried to convince them, recalling the acts of bravery by the Brazilian military in the War of the Triple Alliance. But Floriano replied to him that, "in front of us there were enemies, and here we are all Brazilians", which finally brought him to a realization of how far the mutiny had spread among the officer corps.[403][404] The ostensibly loyal troops opened the headquarters gates to Deodoro[405] who cried out: "Long live His Majesty the Emperor!"[403][406] Deodoro met with Ouro Preto, and he (Deodoro) undertook to personally present the emperor with a list of the names of those to be included in a new cabinet.[405] To the disillusionment of civilian and military republicans, Deodoro did not proclaim a Republic, and it seemed that he would only topple the cabinet.[405] He was unsure whether he wanted to act against Pedro II, and the rebels themselves did not believe the coup would succeed.[407] The few people who witnessed what occurred did not realize that it was a rebellion, and according to the republican Aristides Lobo, the populace was "stunned".[407][408] "Rarely has a revolution been so minor."[409] On the morning of 15 November, Pedro II was in Petrópolis when he received the first telegram from Ouro Preto informing him of the rebellion. However, he did not assign much import to the news.[405][410] At 11 a.m. as he left a mass in honor of the 45th anniversary of his sister Maria II's death, the monarch received a second telegram and decided to return to Rio de Janeiro.[405][407][410][411] His wife expressed concern, but he told her, "On what ma’am? When I arrive there it will be over!"[412] He travelled by train, reading periodicals and scientific magazines. Not imagining the gravity of the situation, he arrived at the city palace at 3 p.m.[405][413] André Rebouças suggested that he go to the countryside to organize resistance.[405][414] The Marquis of Tamandaré asked for his permission to lead the Armada and suppress the rebellion.[415] He dismissed all the ideas put forward and said, "This is nothing. I know my countrymen."[412] The emperor asked the Conservative senator Manuel Francisco Correia what he thought of the situation. Correia answered that he believed that it was the end of the monarchy. Pedro II showed no emotion, as if unconcerned about the possibility.[416] Ouro Preto arrived at the palace at 4 p.m and suggested that Pedro II nominate senator Gaspar da Silveira Martins, who would arrive in the city two days later, as the new President.[407][417][418] Deodoro avoided meeting personally with Pedro II,[407] but once he heard that the emperor had chosen a personnal enemy of his for the office, he finally decided on the inauguration of the Republic.[417][419][420][421] The recently elected Chamber of Deputies was only to be called into session on 20 November, and the Senate was in recess.[405] For this reason, Princess Isabel insisted that her father convoke the Council of State to deal with the situation. But she was given the reply, "Later on."[417][422] The princess, on her own initiative, called the council members.[417][423] The Council assembled at 11 p.m, and after two hours recommended that the emperor appoint Antônio Saraiva instead of Silveira Martins.[420][423][424] After accepting the office, this politician sent an emissary to negotiate with Deodoro. But Deodoro responded that is was too late to change his mind.[416][424] Upon hearing the reply, Pedro II commented, "If it is so, it will be my retirement. I have worked too hard and I am tired. I will go rest then."[425] [edit] Departure to exileOn Saturday 16 November, the imperial family were confined in the palace, surrounded by a cavalry regiment.[425][426] Pedro II continued reading scientific magazines and appeared calm throughout the day.[426] At 3 p.m, Major Frederico Solón Sampaio Ribeiro informed the Imperial Family that the Republic had been proclaimed and that they must leave the country for exile within 24 hours.[407][427] The "republicans had no courage to meet the Emperor, whom they secretly admired, face to face"[428] and therefore sent low-ranking officers to communicate with him.[407] Solón, when complimenting the emperor, called him first "Your Excellency", then "Your Highness" and lastly "Your Majesty".[407][429][430] Although clearly deposed, the emperor was still much respected by those around him, as illustrated by the parley between him and Solón.[429][431][432] The notice of banishment caused the women to weep, while the men struggled to remain calm—with the exception of Pedro II, who remained impassive.[412][420][429][432] The monarch resolved to travel the afternoon of the following day and sent a written message to the Provisional Government stating that he agreed to leave the country.[416][420][421][426][433]  The republican Government feared that demonstrations in favor of the emperor might erupt on Monday 17 November.[434][435][436][437] The lieutenant colonel João Nepomuceno de Medeiros Mallet was sent at dawn to inform the imperial family that it must leave immediately.[438] A commotion arose among those present until Pedro II himself appeared in the room. Mallet respectfully told him that the Government had asked them to depart at once. The emperor refused to leave immediately,[435][436][439][440][441][442] claiming that he was not a slave trying to escape in the middle of the night.[443][444] Mallet tried to persuade him, alleging that republican students would launch violent demonstrations against him. The emperor seemed skeptical: "Who gives credence to students?"[445] At that moment, shots were heard outside. Mallet left the palace to find out what had happened. Fifteen imperial sailors had attempted to land in support of the emperor but were overpowered and imprisoned by republican troops. Mallet returned to the building and deceived Pedro II by saying that militant republicans had tried to attack him and his family.[445] Astonished, the emperor agreed to leave.[445][446][447] When Pedro II left the palace, the soldiers who were standing guard outside instinctively presented arms, and he responded by raising his hat.[447] A few close friends voluntarily accompanied the imperial family into exile, including André Rebouças and Franklin Dória, Baron of Loreto.[448][449] Very few were on hand to witness the departure.[450] They were taken to the steamship Parnaíba and after that to the ship Alagoas, in which they sailed the next day to Europe.[448][451][452] Before the final departure, Pedro II sent a short message to his faithful friend the Marquis of Tamandaré, who had remained at his side until embarkation: "What is done, is done. It remains to all of you to establish order and to consolidate your institutions."[453] After learning that the emperor had left, Benjamin Constant spoke: "It is fulfilled, the most painful of our duties."[454] Rui Barbosa later recalled saying to Major Carlos Nunes de Aguiar, who had been at his side witnessing the departure from afar: "You were right to weep when the emperor left."[455] It was "the end of the monarchy, but not of myth, called d. Pedro."[449] The government headed by Deodoro "was little more than a military dictatorship. The army dominated affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power."[456] The republican regime which followed the overthrow of the monarchy revealed itself to be highly unstable. In "a little more than a century of existence, the Brazilian Republic faced twelve states of emergency, seventeen Institutional Acts, the National Congress dissolved six times, nineteen military revolutions, two presidential resignations, three presidents prevented from assuming office, four presidents deposed, seven different Constitutions, four dictatorships, and nine authoritarian governments."[457] [edit] ExileThe monarchist reaction after the fall of the empire "was not small, and even less so its repression."[458] The "new regime suppressed with swift brutality and total disdain for civil liberties all attempts to launch a monarchist party or to publish monarchist newspapers."[459] Soon after several popular riots in protest against the coup occurred as well as battles between monarchist Army troops and republican militias.[460] Those were followed by a civil war in which monarchist military and politicians tried to restore the empire in the Federalist Revolution and the Second Navy Rebellion.[461][462] The last monarchist rebellion occurred in 1904, in what was called the Vaccine Revolt.[462][463] [edit] Later years
[edit] DeathOn 23 November 1891, Pedro II appeared at the French Academy of Sciences for the last time to participate in an election.[464][465] The following morning, he dispassionately noted in his diary the news that the dictator Deodoro da Fonseca had resigned: "10:30. Deodoro has quit."[466] He soon afterwards took a long drive in an open carriage along the Seine, even though it was a very cold day. He felt ill after returning to the Hôtel de Bedford that evening.[464][467] The illness progressed into pneumonia during the following days.[464][468] There was no celebration of the anniversary of his birth on 2 December, with the exception of a simple mass said while he remained in bed, and his daughter, son-in-law and grandchildren in attendance.[468][469][470] However, he later received several French and Brazilian visitors who had come to offer birthday congratulations.[468]  His health suddenly worsened on the morning of 3 December.[471] Other relatives and friends went to see him once news of the seriousness of the situation began to spread. On 4 December, he received the last sacrament from Abbé Pierre-Jacques-Almeyre Le Rébours, curé of La Madeleine.[472][473] That night Pedro II began declining, and died at 12:35 a.m. on 5 December.[469][470][474] His last words were, "May God grant me these last wishes - peace and prosperity for Brazil..."[471] He was so weakened that he suffered no pain.[473] Pedro II was surrounded by his daughter Isabel, the Count of Eu, his grandchildren (Pedro, Luís, Antonio, Pedro Augusto and Augusto), his sisters Januária and Francisca with their husbands (respectively the Count of Aquila and the Prince of Joinville).[475] According to the death certificate the causa mortis was acute pneumonia in the left lung.[470][476][477] Pedro II died without abdicating, and Isabel inherited the claim to the throne of the Brazilian Empire.[470] She solemnly kissed her father's hands, and after that, all those present, including dozens of Brazilians already there kissed her hand, recognizing her as the Empress de jure of Brazil.[474][477] The Baron of Rio Branco, who was also present, later wrote: "The Brazilians, thirty and something, went in line and, one by one, sprinkled holy water on the corpse and kissed his hand. I did the same. They were saying farewell to the great dead."[475] Senator Gaspar da Silveira Martins arrived soon after the Emperor's death and, when he saw the body of his old friend, wept convulsively.[478] Isabel declined an autopsy, which allowed the body to be embalmed at 9 a.m. on 5 December. Six liters of hydrochloride of zinc and aluminum was injected into his common carotid artery.[479] A death mask was also made.[478] Pedro II was attired in the court dress uniform of a Marshal of the Army to represent his position as commander-in-chief of the Brazilian armed forces.[476][479] On his chest were placed the Order of the Southern Cross, the Order of the Golden Fleece and the Order of the Rose. His hands held a silver crucifix sent by Pope Leo XIII. Two Brazilian flags covered his legs.[470][479][480] While the body was being prepared, the Count of Eu found a sealed package in the room, and next to it a message written by the Emperor himself: "It is soil from my country, I wish it to be placed in my coffin in case I die away from my fatherland."[470][481][482] The package, which contained soil from every Brazilian province, was duly placed inside the coffin.[481][483] Three coffins were used: an inner coffin of lead lined with white satin which contained the body, and two outer coffins (one of varnished oak and the other of oak covered by black velvet).[483] [edit] FuneralIn the hours following the death of Pedro II, thousands of people came to the Hôtel de Bedford. Among these were the President of the Council of Ministers, Charles de Freycinet, and the ministers of War and the Navy.[478][480] In a single day, more than 2,000 telegrams were received by the hotel with messages of condolence.[476][483] French president Sadi Carnot was traveling in the south of the country and sent the members of the Military Household to pay homage to the deceased monarch on his behalf.[484] Princess Isabel wished to hold a discrete and private burial ceremony.[485] However, she eventually accepted the French Government's request for a Head of State's funeral. To prevent political disruption,[486] the government decided that the burial would be officially accorded because the Emperor was a recipient of the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur,[476][487] although with the pomp due to a monarch.[470] Requests from Brazil's republican government to deny an official funeral and any public display of the imperial flag were ignored by the French government.[486] The coffin which contained the body of Pedro II departed the Hôtel de Bedford for La Madeleine on the evening of 8 December.[488] Eight French soldiers bore the coffin, which was covered with the imperial flag.[488][489] A crowd of more than 5,000 people was on hand to witness the cortege.[488] The hearse was the same one used for the funerals of Cardinal Morlot, the duc de Morny and Adolphe Thiers.[476][489]  On the following day, thousands of mourners attended the ceremony at La Madeleine. Aside from Pedro II's family, these included: Amadeo, former king of Spain; Francis II, former king of the Two Sicilies; Isabella II, former queen of Spain; Philippe, comte de Paris; and other members of European royalty.[490][491] Also present were General Joseph Brugère, representing President Sadi Carnot; the presidents of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies[476] as well as their members; diplomats; and other representatives of the French government.[492] Nearly all members of the French Academy, the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, the French Academy of Sciences, the Académie des Beaux-Arts and the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques were in attendance.[476][489] Also among those present were Eça de Queiroz,[476] Alexandre Dumas, fils, Gabriel Auguste Daubrée, Jules Arsène Arnaud Claretie, Marcellin Berthelot, Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau, Edmond Jurien de la Gravière, Julius Oppert, Camille Doucet, and many other notable personages.[489][490] Other governments from the Americans and Europe also sent representatives, as did distant countries such as Ottoman Turkey, China, Japan and Persia.[492] Notably absent was any delegation from Brazil.[476] Following the services, the coffin was taken in procession to the train station, from whence it would travel to Portugal. Between 200,000[476] and 300,000[493] people lined the route despite incessant rain and cold temperatures.[494] Some 80,000 French military troops marched in the procession.[495] Two carriages carried almost 200 floral memorials which bore messages paying homage to the Emperor such as: "To Dom Pedro, Victoria R.I.",[493] "To the great Emperor for whom Caxias, Osório, Andrade Neves and many other heroes fought, Fatherland Volunteers from Rio de Janeiro",[493][496] "A group of Brazilian students in Paris",[493] "Happy times when the thought, the word and the pen were free, when Brazil freed oppressed people…" (sent by the Baron of Ladário, Marquis of Tamandaré, Viscount of Sinimbu, Rodolfo Dantas, Joaquim Nabuco and Taunay),[493] "To the great Brazilian worthy of honors from the Fatherland and Humanity. Ubique Patria Memor."[493] (sent by the Baron of Rio Branco),[482] "From the people of Rio Grande do Sul to the liberal and patriotic king",[493] and "A Brazilian black on behalf of his race".[493] The "state funeral granted by the French republic proclaimed the former’s [Pedro II] personal virtues and popularity and, by implication, distinguished the imperial regime from other monarchies."[497] All along the route, from France, through Spain and finally into Portugal, people paid homage to Pedro II. But still no representative appeared on behalf of Brazil's republican government.[498] The journey continued on to the Church of São Vicente de Fora near Lisbon, where the body of Pedro II was interred in the Braganza Pantheon on 12 December. His tomb rested between that of his stepmother Amélia and that of his wife Teresa Cristina.[498][499] [edit] Death's repercussionsThe Brazilian republican government, "fearful of a backlash resulting from the death of the emperor," banned any official reaction.[500] Nevertheless, the Brazilian people were far from indifferent to Pedro II's demise, and the "repercussions in Brazil were also immense, despite the government's effort to suppress. There were demonstrations of sorrow throughout the country: shuttered business activity, flags displayed at half-staff, black armbands on clothes, death knells, religious ceremonies."[498][501] An article written by João Mendes de Almeida in 7 December 1891 says that, "The news of the death of His Majesty Emperor Dom Pedro II has revealed the feelings of the Brazilian nation towards the Imperial dynasty. The consternation has been general."[502] Solemn "masses were held all over the country, which were followed by eulogies praising Dom Pedro II and the monarchy".[501] So, the "Republic stood by silently, given the strength and impact of reactions."[500]  Police were sent to suppress public demonstrations of sorrow, "provoking serious incidents", although "the people were in sympathy with these manifestants."[503] A popular gathering in memory of the deceased emperor occurred on 9 December and was organized by the Marquis of Tamandaré, Viscount of Ouro Preto, Viscount of Sinimbu, Baron of Ladário, Carlos de Laet, Alfredo d' Escragnolle Taunay, Rodolfo Dantas, Afonso Celso and Joaquim Nabuco.[504] Even old political adversaries of Pedro II praised him, "criticizing his policies" but pointing out "his patriotism, honesty, abnegation, spirit of justice, devotion to work, tolerance and simplicity."[505] Quintino Bocaiúva, one of the main republican leaders, spoke: "The entire world, it may be said, has paid homage which Mr. Dom Pedro de Alcântara has earned through his virtues as a great citizen."[498] Some "members of republican clubs protested against what they characterized as exaggerated sentimentalism in the tributes, seeing in these monarchist maneuvers. They were lonely voices."[498] Foreign reaction also revealed sympathy towards the monarch. The New York Times on 5 December praised Pedro II, considering him "the most enlightened monarch of the century" and also stating that "he made Brazil as free as a monarchy could be."[506] The Herald wrote: "In another time, and in happier circumstances, he would be worshiped and honored by his subjects and would be known in history as 'Dom Pedro the Good'."[507] The Tribune affirmed that his "reign was serene, peaceable and prosperous."[507] The Times observed, in a long article, "Until November 1889, it was believed that the deceased Emperor and his wife were unanimously beloved in Brazil due to his intellectual and moral qualities and by his affectionate interest for the well-being of his subjects [...] When in Rio de Janeiro he was constantly seen in public; and two times per week he met his subjects, as well as foreign travelers, captivating all with his courtesy."[507] The Weekly Register wrote, "He looked more like a poet or a scholar than an emperor, but had he had been given the chance to materialize his several projects, without a doubt he would have made Brazil one of the richest countries in the New World."[508] The French periodical Le Jour affirmed that "he was effectively the first sovereign that, following our disaster of 1871, dared to visit us. Our defeat did not move him away from us. France will know how to be grateful."[485] The Globe also wrote that he "was well learned, he was patriotic; he was gentle and indulgent; he had all the private virtues, as well as the public ones, and died in exile."[509] [edit] Legacy[edit] Post mortemThe monarchy "fell just as it reached its highest point of popularity" among most Brazilians.[510] Indifferent to the new republican heroes, such as Tiradentes, Brazilians remained attached to the popular Emperor, whom they regarded "a hero of the people, a son of the land."[511] In "appearance, temperament, circumstances, no one was more suited than D. Pedro II to personify the quintessential father of the people."[512] This view was even stronger among those of African descent, who believed that the monarchy "strangely continued to represent, even metaphorically, freedom."[513] The afro-Brazilians demonstrated their feeling of loyalty towards the monarch in subtle ways, such as by tattooing the Imperial Crown on their bodies.[514]  In cities throughout the nation, music with lyrics reflecting popular sentiment was disseminated. Examples include: "Pedro the Second left/to the kingdom of Lisbon./The monarchy is over/and now Brazil is adrift."[515] and "The mother of Deodoro said: This son was once mine/Now he is cursed/by me and by God."[515] Among the "great - and few - names in our history [of Brazil] that hold a place in the popular imagination, is certainly the figure of Dom Pedro II." He personified the "wise, benevolent, austere and honest ruler."[516] It was "as if a new attitude had come over the population which tied the fate of the Republic, and its economic and political issues, to the departure of d. Pedro II."[517] He was seen as a popular hero, and gradually "he would be reintroduced as an official hero."[515] Surprisingly, strong feelings of guilt appeared among republicans "which became more and more evident upon the death of d. Pedro."[518] In Brazil, "the news of Pedro II’s death aroused a genuine sense of regret among those who, without sympathy for a restoration, acknowledged both the merits and the achievements of their deceased ruler." [519] In "memory, the monarchy was still alive, as well as a certain sense of remorse."[511] The republicans "reconsidered the long banishment and reflected upon the severity of such action."[520] They believed Pedro II deserved a better end. Many "men responsible for the [creation of the] Republic started to see in the Imperial epoch a happier time, a golden age, forever gone."[521] The "monarchy became viewed with greater tolerance and its achievements acknowledged."[522] Now appeared "a feeling that there was once a time when Brazil was more respectable, more honest, and more powerful."[516] There was a "strange insistence" on the part of "several republican politicians", including those "of higher standing", of "praising D. Pedro II and the monarchy."[523] They did not desire a restoration, but believed that the Brazilian Republic might learn from the fallen regime. Thus, Pedro II "became, paradoxically, a model of republican ideals."[524] For "the republicans, d. Pedro appeared as the best of themselves; for the monarchists the compliment was, clearly, something else."[524] After the death of the monarch, appeals for the repatriation of his body increased over time. The republican periodical A Cidade do Rio (The City of Rio) stated that "Brazil is so large that it cannot begrudge some scant feet of land to him" and demanded: "Bring him back."[504] The Gazeta da Tarde (Afternoon Gazette) said that Pedro II deserved an official funeral within the country.[504] In 1895, Afonso Celso wrote in the Comércio de São Paulo (Commerce of São Paulo): "The body of D. Pedro cannot continue to lie in foreign territory."[525] By 1906 the poet Olavo Bilac wrote, "The fatherland reclaims your body and it shall have it."[525] The Jornal do Comércio (Commerce Newspaper) predicted that "one day, when all passions have lost their strength, your body shall rest here."[504] [edit] The end of exileA law was proposed in the Chamber of Deputies to authorize the transfer of the bodies of Pedro II and his wife. Although it had support from old republicans, it was put aside due to a precondition from Princess Isabel that this could only be permitted if the banishment of her family was also rescinded.[525] The dedication of a statue of the Emperor in Petrópolis on 5 February 1911 was attended by more than 1,500 people, including members of the federal government.[526] Several statues of the monarch were erected throughout the country during the following years.[527] At this time, a manifesto written by former Presidents of the Council of Ministers, Lafayette, Ouro Preto and João Alfredo declared that "given the love that Brazilians have for their sovereigns, we agree to the return of the venerable remains back from São Vicente de Fora."[526]  A proposed new bill, which would revoke the banishment, was debated in the Chamber in 1913.[528] The republican deputy Irineu Machado alleged that "futile objections" were being raised which denied "justice to the memory of the emperor."[528] Another member, Martim Francisco de Andrada III affirmed that "D. Pedro II left poor, leaving the country rich; it was an injustice that the those who are rich and leave the country impoverished be against it."[528] The deputy Pedro Moacir believed that the return of the remains would represent "the perpetual gratitude of posterity towards the most clement, the most tolerant of all monarchs of his time."[529] The deputy Maurício de Lacerda said that "now the traces of his political legacy—honesty—are disappearing."[530] In the Senate, however, the proposal was rejected due to intervention by the caudillo and radical republican Pinheiro Machado.[530] In 1914, however, it was senator Rui Barbosa, the last of the republican leaders of the 1889 coup still alive (and also the one who ordered the banishment) who made the most famous speech in homage to Pedro II:
But two years later, in 1916, President Venceslau Brás agreed to the return of the bodies and revocation of the banishment, but opted to await the end of World War I to officially approve the Act.[530] On 3 September 1920, his successor Epitácio Pessoa signed the law (using a gold quill provided by the Brazilian Press Association) which ended the banishment and allowed repatriation of the remains.[530] Rui Barbosa said that those "who created the federal republic do not have claims against the ashes of the old emperor, whose virtues were much higher than his faults."[531] He concluded, "Therefore, in the republican gallery there is a proper place, and a great one, for D. Pedro II."[531] [edit] The Emperor returns homeIn 1920 the dreadnought São Paulo bore the imperial coffins to Brazil.[531] The Portuguese republican government granted Pedro II an exhumation with dignities befitting a Head of State, and he received the same honors upon arrival in Brazil. The Count of Eu accompanied the remains, along with his only surviving son, Pedro de Alcântara.[531] His wife, Princess Isabel, was old and ill and could not participate. She died one year later, without ever seeing her homeland again.[520] President Artur Bernardes declared a national holiday and the return of the Emperor was celebrated throughout the nation.[524]  In attendance at the main ceremony in Rio de Janeiro was councilor Antonio Prado, the last minister of the Empire still living, who had traveled from São Paulo.[532] Thousands of people attended the event. The "elderly people cried. Many kneeled. All clapped. There was no distinction between republicans and monarchists. They were all Brazilians."[532] It marked the reconciliation of Republican Brazil with its monarchical past.[533] However, "the official return of the figure of d. Pedro as a national hero would truly come only in 1922, owing to the great national commemoration of the centenary celebration of Brazilian independence" during which the Emperor was highly acclaimed.[520] Three years later, Brazilians spontaneously commemorated Pedro II's centenary. There was a clear "disproportion between the enthusiasm generated by the festivities around the birth of d. Pedro, and the little interest in the anniversary of the Republic, which was then 36 years old."[534] President Artur Bernardes recognized the popularity of the monarch and affirmed that he would not refuse "the justice that the Emperor deserves. He loved Brazil and while he had the strength and energy he served the country together with the best men of that time."[535] Pedro II became, once again, the "Father of the Fatherland".[536] His body was temporarily housed in the Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro until construction of the Cathedral of Petrópolis was completed.[532] The final burial would only occur on 5 December 1939, when the dictator Getúlio Vargas took advantage of the ceremony as an opportunity to benefit his own popularity (just as Mussolini had done during Anita Garibaldi's funeral in 1932).[537] Vargas dedicated the funerary chapel in the Cathedral of Petrópolis, where the mortal remains of the Emperor and his wife were interred.[538] Pedro II's "principal achievements—the fostering of a political culture and the inculcation of an ideal of citizenship—not only survived his overthrow as emperor in 1889, but also endured as the norms and directives of public life during three succeeding regimes—the Old Republic (1889-1930), the Vargas Era (1930-45), the Liberal Republic (1945-64). Even the military regime which seized power in 1964 was deeply influenced by the vision of Brazil as a nation-state established by Pedro II. Only in the 1980s would this vision begin to be supplanted."[539] At the beginning of the twenty-first century his "name is widely employed to evoke both traditional values and the nation's heritage. His image confers respectability, dignity, and integrity on whatever event or institution employs it."[540] [edit] Titles and honours
[edit] Titles and styles
The Emperor's full style and title were:
[edit] Honours
[edit] Genealogy[edit] AncestryThe ancestry of Emperor Pedro II:[548] [edit] PosterityPedro II was married on 17 September 1842 to his cousin Princess Teresa of the Two Sicilies (1822–1889), the youngest daughter of his grand-uncle King Francis I of the Two Sicilies (1777–1830) and his grand-aunt Maria Isabella of Spain. Pedro II and Teresa Cristina had four children:
[edit] See also
[edit] Bibliography[edit] References
[edit] Further reading
[edit] Footnotes
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