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For other uses, see Kangxi (disambiguation).
The Kangxi Emperor (Chinese: 康熙帝; pinyin: Kāngxīdì; Wade-Giles: K'ang-hsi-ti; Temple Name: 清聖祖; Mongolian: Энх-Амгалан хаан, 4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722) was the third Emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty[1][2] and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, from 1661 to 1722. His reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning Chinese Emperor in history and one of the longest in the world (although his grandson Qianlong had the longest period of de facto power). However, having ascended the throne aged seven, he did not exercise much, if any, control over the empire until later, that role being fulfilled by his four guardians and his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang. Kangxi, considered one of China's greatest Emperors, was a pivotal figure in Chinese history, having defeated the Three Feudatories, the Zheng Jing government on Taiwan who previously would not submit to Qing rule and the Tzarist Russia, expanded the Qing empire in the northwest, and achieved such literary feats as the Kangxi Dictionary. Kangxi's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. Emperor Kangxi was the architect of the period known as the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong" which lasted generations past his own life. During his reign, the Qing Empire controlled all territory of China proper, Manchuria, parts of the Russian Far East and Mongolia and Korea as its protectorate.
[edit] Early reignBorn on 12 May 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiao Kang, Kangxi was originally given the personal name Xuanye (Chinese: 玄燁). He succeeded the imperial throne at the age of 7, on 7 February 1661, twelve days after his father's death. Although the Kangxi reign period only began on 18 February 1662 (the first day of the following lunar year), the Kangxi Emperor actually ruled for more than 61 years from February 1661 to his death on 20 December 1722. His reign was the longest in Chinese history. His temple name (i.e. the official name given after his death for reveration in temple ceremonies) was Shengzu ("Sacred Ancestor"); his descendants thus called him Qing Shengzu. His father gave up the throne to Kangxi and became a monk. There are few reasons for giving up the throne and one acoount is due to the death of his favourite consort and another account was the influence of buddisht monk during his reign. Some historians believe that Emperor Shunzi died of small pox but this is still disputed. According to the court archive it was discover that during the reign of Shunzi small pox was biggest killer in China. On account to cover up Emperor Shunzi of becoming a monk then Empress Dowager ordered the details to be deleted from history and henceforth to be recorded as Emperor Shunzi died from small pox. Kangxi was not able to rule in his minority, the Shunzhi Emperor appointed Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, and Oboi as the Emperor's Four Regents. Sonin died soon after his granddaughter was made the Empress, Heseri, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi politically. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death, and seized absolute power as the sole Regent. Kangxi and the Court followed this arrangement. In 1669 the Emperor arrested Oboi with help from the Grand Dowager Empress Xiaozhuang and began to take control of the country himself. In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered the Great Clearance in southern China, in order to fight the anti-Qing movement, begun by Ming Dynasty loyalists under the leadership of Zheng Chenggong (also known as Koxinga), to regain Beijing. This involved moving the entire population of the coastal regions of southern China inland. He listed three issues of concern, being the flood control of the Yellow River, the repairing of the Grand Canal and the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in South China. The Revolt of the Three Feudatories broke out in 1673 and Burni of the Chahar Mongols also started a rebellion in 1675. The Revolt of the Three Feudatories presented a major challenge. Wu Sangui's forces had overrun most of southern China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen. Kangxi, however, united his court in support of the war effort and employed capable generals such as Zhou Pei Gong and Tu Hai to crush the rebellion. He also extended clemency to the common people who had been caught up in the fighting. Although Kangxi personally wanted to lead the battles against the 3 Feudatories, he was advised not to by his advisors. Kangxi would later lead the battle against the Mongol Dzungars. Kangxi crushed the rebellious Mongols within two months and incorporated the Chahar into the Eight Banners. After the surrender of the Zheng family, the Qing Dynasty annexed Taiwan in 1684. Soon afterwards, the coastal regions were ordered to be repopulated, and to encourage settlers, the Qing government gave a financial incentive to each settling family. In a diplomatic success, the Kangxi government helped mediate a truce in the long-running Trinh-Nguyen War in the year 1673. The war in Vietnam between these two powerful clans had been going on for 45 years without result. The peace treaty that was signed lasted for 101 years.[3] [edit] Russia and the Mongols At the same time, the Emperor was faced with the Russian advance from the north. The Qing Dynasty and the Russian Empire fought along the Sahaliyan ula (Amur, or Heilongjiang) Valley region in the 1650s, which ended with a Qing victory. The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in 1680s. After series of battles and negotiations, the two empires signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 giving China the Amur valley and fixing a border. At this time the Khalkha Mongols preserved their independence and only paid tribute to the Manchu Empire. A conflict between the Houses of Jasaghtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led another dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungar Mongols over influence over Tibetan Buddhism. In 1688 Galdan, the Dzungar chief, invaded and occupied the Khalkha homeland. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu crossed the Gobi Desert, sought help from the Qing Dynasty and, as a result, submitted to the Qing. In 1690, the Dzungar and the Manchu Empire clashed at the battle of Ulaan Butun in Inner Mongolia, during which the Qing army was severely mauled by Galdan.  In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor himself as commander in chief led three armies with a total of 80,000 in the campaign against the Dzungars. The notable second-in-command general behind Kangxi was Fei Yang Gu (費揚古) who was personally recommended by Zhou Pei Gong (周培公). The Western section of the Qing army crushed Galdan's army at the Battle of Zuunmod and Galdan died in the next year. The Dzungars continued to threaten China and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took Lhasa with an army 6,000 strong in response to the deposition of the Dalai Lama and his replacement with Lha-bzan Khan in 1706. They removed Lha-bzan from power and held the city for two years, destroying a Chinese army in 1718. Lhasa was not retaken until 1720. [edit] The Banner SystemThe 8 Banner Army was already in decline. The 8 Banner Army was inferior to the Qing army at its peak during Huang Taji and early Shunzhi's reign; however, it was still superior to the later Yongzheng period and even more so than the Qianlong period. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tu Hai, Fei Yang Gu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Pei Gong, Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shi Ke, Wang Jing Bao. These generals were stronger than the Qianlong period's generals. The main reason for this decline was because of the change in system between Kangxi and Qianlong's reign. During Kangxi's reign, the empire still used the ancestor's military system that was far more efficient and strict. Based on the old system, if a general was to return by himself, he was to be slain. If a soldier returned by himself, the soldier was to be slain. Basically, a group of general and soldiers are to co-exist. This obviously meant that the generals and soldiers would fight for their lives because if the rest of the group were defeated, he would also die either way.  By Qianlong's reign, because the Lord status was passed on for generations, the war lords started to become lazy. The warlords' ancestor's had already given them fame and so the war lords saw the training of the army as less important than it once was. In a sense, Kangxi's reign was a reign where he tried to reunify China, which meant the war lords had to get back in combat, but by Qianlong's reign it was mostly expansion. [edit] Treasury statusThe contents of the national treasury in the Kangxi emperor's reign was:
As Kangxi was not yet of age when he became Emperor he did not have control of the affairs of state until later on in his reign after the arrest of the regent Oboi in 1669. Given the reasons for the great decline in the later years were that the wars has been taking great amounts of money from the treasury, that the border defense against the Dzungars and the later civil war in Tibet had been costly and that, due to Kangxi's old age, the emperor had no more energy left to handle corrupt officials. To cure this treasury problem, Kangxi advised Prince Yong (the future Emperor Yongzheng) some tactics to make the economy more efficient. The other problem that concerned Kangxi when he died was the civil war in Tibet; both that problem and the treasury problem would be solved during Yongzheng's reign. [edit] Cultural achievements The Emperor, Kangxi ordered the compiling of the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters ever put together, The Kangxi Dictionary. In many ways this was an attempt to win over the Chinese gentry. Many scholars still refused to serve the dynasty and remained loyal to the Ming Dynasty. Kangxi persuaded scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve the Qing. In effect they found themselves gradually taking on more and more responsibilities until they were normal officials. The great compilation of Tang Dynasty poetry, the Quantangshi, was also produced, by imperial order, in 1705. Kangxi also was keen on Western technology and tried to bring it to China. This was helped through Jesuit missionaries such as Ferdinand Verbiest whom he summoned almost everyday to the Forbidden City. From 1711 to 1723 Matteo Ripa, an Italian priest born near Salerno, sent to China by Propaganda Fide, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Manchu court. In 1723 Matteo Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to let them become priests and go back to China as missionaries; this began the "Collegio dei Cinesi," sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the propagation of Christianity in China. The "Chinese Institute" was the first Sinology School on the European continent and the nucleus of what would then become the Instituto Orientale and today's "Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale" (Naples Eastern University). Kangxi was also the first Chinese Emperor to have played a western instrument, the piano. He also invented a Chinese calendar. [edit] Kangxi and ChristianityMain article: Chinese Rites controversy  In the early decades of Kangxi's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the Imperial court; with the knowledge of astronomy they had brought, they ran the imperial observatory and Jean-François Gerbillon and Tomas Pereira served as emissaries to Russia for the Emperor, and managed to secure a peace that halted Russian expansionism in the East, with the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions to his court, the many languages they could interpret, and the innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing[4] and artillery, the latter of which had enabled the empire to reconquer Taiwan.[5] The Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke Chinese well, and wore the silk robes of the elite.[6]  So in 1692, when Fr. Tomas Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity, the Kangxi Emperor was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration,[7] which recognized Catholicism, barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by Chinese people.[8] But the good will did not last. Controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship, with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and the Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign "idolatry." The Dominican position won out with Pope Clement XI, who, in 1705, sent Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon as his representative to the Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites.[4][9] On 19 March 1715, Clement issued the Papal bull Ex illa die, which officially condemned Chinese rites.[4] In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were causing "trouble."[10] [edit] Twice Removing the Crown Prince One of the mysteries of the Qing Dynasty was the event of Kangxi's will, which along with three other events, are known as the "Four greatest mysteries of the Qing Dynasty". To this day, whom Kangxi chose as his successor is still a topic of debate amongst historians, even though, supposedly, he chose Yinzhen, the 4th Prince, who was to become emperor Yongzheng. Many claimed that Yongzheng forged the will, and some suggest the will had chosen Yinti, the 14th Prince, who was apparently the favourite, as successor. However, there is strong evidence that Kangxi had in fact chosen Yinzhen as his successor. Kangxi's first Empress gave birth to his second surviving son Yinreng, who was at age two named Crown Prince of the Great Qing Empire, which at the time, being a Han Chinese custom, ensured stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although Kangxi left several of his sons to be educated by others, he personally brought up Yinreng, intending to fashion him into the perfect heir. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who was devoted to the prince, and who was to spend the latter years of his life trying to revive Yinreng's position at court. Through the long years of Kangxi's reign, however, factions and rivalries formed. Those who favored Yinreng, the 4th Imperial Prince Yinzhen, and the 13th Imperial Prince Yinxiang had managed to keep them in contention for the throne. Even though Kangxi favoured Yinreng and had always wanted the best for him, Yinreng did not prove co-operative. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of Kangxi's concubines, which was defined as incest and a capital offense, and purchased young children from the Jiangsu region for his pleasure. Furthermore, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu, had gradually developed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨). The faction wished to elevate Yinreng to the Throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods.  Over the years the aging Emperor had kept constant watch over Yinreng, and he was made aware of many of his flaws. The relationship between father and son gradually worsened. Many thought that Yinreng would permanently damage the Qing Empire if he were to succeed the throne. But Kangxi himself also knew that a huge battle at court would ensue if he was to abolish the Crown Prince position entirely. Forty-six years into Kangxi's reign (1707), Kangxi decided that "after twenty years, he could take no more of Yinreng's actions, which he partly described in the Imperial Edict as "too embarrassing to be spoken of", and decided to demote Yinreng from his position as Crown Prince. With Yinreng rid of and the position empty, discussion began regarding the choice of a new Crown Prince. Yinzhi (胤禔), Kangxi's eldest surviving son, the Da-a-go (大阿哥), was placed to watch Yinreng in his newly found house arrest, and assumed that because his father placed this trust in himself, he would soon be made heir. The 1st Prince had many times attempted to sabotage Yinreng, even employing witchcraft. He went as far as asking Kangxi for permission to execute Yinreng, thus enraging Kangxi, which effectively erased all his chances in succession, as well as his current titles. In Court, the 8th Imperial Prince, Yinsi, seemed to have the most support among officials, as well as the Imperial Family. In diplomatic language, Kangxi advised that the officials and nobles at court to stop the debates regarding the position of Crown Prince. But despite these attempts to quiet rumours and speculation as to who the new Crown Prince might be, the court's daily business was strongly disrupted. Furthermore, the first Prince's actions led Kangxi to think that it may have been external forces that caused Yinreng's disgrace. In the Third Month of the 48th Year of Kangxi's reign (1709), with the support of the fourth and thirteenth Imperial Princes, Kangxi re-established Yinreng as Crown Prince to avoid further debate, rumours and disruption at the imperial court. Kangxi had explained Yinreng's former wrongs as a result of mental illness, and he had had the time to recover, and think reasonably again. In 1712, during Kangxi's last visit south to the Yangtze region, Yinreng and his faction yet again vied for supreme power. Yinreng ruled as regent during daily court business in Beijing. He had decided to allow an attempt at forcing Kangxi to abdicate when the Emperor returned to Beijing. Through several credible sources, Kangxi had received the news, and with power in hand, he saved the Empire from a coup d'etat. When Kangxi returned to Beijing in December 1712, he was enraged, and removed the Crown Prince once more. Yinreng was sent to court to be tried and placed under house arrest. Kangxi had made it clear that he would not grant the position of Crown Prince to any of his sons for the remainder of his reign, and that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside a box inside Qianqing Palace, only to be opened after his death. What was in his will is subject to intense historical debate. [edit] Disputed succession Following the abolition, Kangxi made some sweeping changes in the political landscape. The 13th Imperial Prince, Yinxiang, was placed under house arrest for "cooperating" with the former Crown Prince. Yinsi, too, was stripped of all imperial titles, only to have them restored years later. The 14th Imperial Prince Yinti, whom many considered to have the best chance in succession, was named "Border Pacification General-in-chief" quelling rebels and was away from Beijing when the political debates raged on. Yinsi, along with the 9th and 10th Princes, had all pledged their support for Yinti. Yinzhen was not widely believed to be a formidable competitor. Official documents recorded that during the evening hours of 20 December 1722, Kangxi assembled at his bedside seven of the imperial princes who had not disgraced themselves—these were his third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth sons. After his death, Longkodo announced that Kangxi had selected as his heir the fourth prince, Yinzhen. Yinti was in Xinjiang fighting a war when he received word that he had been summoned to Beijing. He did not arrive until days after Kangxi's death. In the meantime Yinzhen had declared that Kangxi had named him as heir and taken the era name Yongzheng. The dispute over his succession revolves around whether Kangxi intended his fourth or fourteenth son to succeed to the throne. (See: Yongzheng) The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs (東陵) in Zunhua County (遵化縣), Hebei. [edit] Family
[edit] ConsortsThe total number is approximately 64.
[edit] SonsHaving the longest reign in Chinese history, Kangxi also has the most children of all Qing Dynasty Emperors. He had officially 24 sons and 12 daughters. The actual number is higher, as most of his children died from illness.
[edit] Daughters
[edit] The Kangxi Emperor in fiction
[edit] In films, television and popular culture
[edit] See also[edit] Notes
[edit] External links
[edit] Sources
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