House Sparrow
Male
Female Birdsong (help·info)
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Passeriformes
Family:	Passeridae
Genus:	Passer
Species:	P. domesticus
Binomial name
Passer domesticus (Linnaeus 1758)
Native range in dark green and introduced range in light green.
Synonyms
Fringilla domestica Linnaeus 1758 Passer domesticus: Pallas 1811 Pyrtiga domestica: Cuvier 1817 Pyrtiga nigricollis Brehm 1831 Pyrtiga pagorum Brehm 1831 Pyrtiga rustica Brehm 1831 Passer indicus Jardine and Selby 1835 Passer arboreus Bonaparte 1850 (preoccupied) Passer confucius Bonaparte 1853 Passer rufidorsalis Brehm 1855 Passer tingitianus: von Homeyer 1869 Passer engimaticus Zarudny 1903 Passer ahasvar Kleinschmidt 1904 Passer alexandrinus Madarász 1911 Passer hostilis Kleinschmidt 1915

The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a member of the Old World sparrow family Passeridae. It occurs naturally in most of Europe, the Mediterranean basin, and much of Asia. It has also followed humans all over the world and has been intentionally or accidentally introduced to most of the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, New Zealand and Australia as well as urban areas in other parts of the world. It is now the most widely distributed wild bird on the planet.^[2] In the United States it is also colloquially known as the English Sparrow to distinguish it from American sparrows.

Contents 1 Description 1.1 Voice 2 Taxonomy and etymology 2.1 Subspecies 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behaviour 4.1 Food and feeding 4.2 Breeding and survival 5 As an invasive species 6 References 6.1 Works cited 7 External links

[edit] Description

The House Sparrow is a chunky bird,^[3] ranging from 14–18 centimetres (5.5–7.1 in) in length,^[4] and from 24–39.5 grams (0.85–1.4 oz) in mass,^[5] depending on sex and subspecies. Females average smaller than males,^[5] and southern and lower-altitude birds are smaller than their northern or higher-altitude counterparts.^[4]

Like most of the members of its genus, the House Sparrow is sexually dimorphic. The male's mantle and upper back are a warm brown, broadly streaked with black, while the lower back, rump and uppertail coverts are a greyish-brown. The crown, cheeks and underparts are pale grey, with black on the throat, upper breast and between the bill and eyes. The bill in summer is blue-black, and the legs are brown. In winter the plumage is dulled by pale edgings, and the bill is yellowish brown.^[6] The black throat patch on the males is variable in size, and the size of that patch or badge is correlated with the aggressiveness, suggesting that it is a signal to show dominance in a social situation.^[7] The female has no black on head or throat, nor a grey crown; her upperparts are streaked with brown. The juveniles are deeper brown, and the white is replaced by buff; the beak is pink to dull yellow. The House Sparrow is often confused with the smaller and more slender Tree Sparrow, which, however, has a chestnut and not grey crown, two distinct wing bars, and a black patch on each cheek.

[edit] Voice

The House Sparrow's most common call is a short and incessant chirp. It also has a double call note phillip which led to the now obsolete folk name of "Phillip Sparrow".^[8] While the young are in their nests, the older birds utter a long churr.

[edit] Taxonomy and etymology

The House Sparrow is part of the Old World sparrow genus Passer which contains 15-25 species, depending on the authority.^[2] Its members are typically found in open, lightly wooded, habitats. Most species in the genus are between 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) long, dull-coloured birds with short square tails and stubby conical beaks. They are mostly ground-feeding seed-eaters, although they also consume invertebrates, especially when breeding.^[9] The House Sparrow is part of a group with Mediterranean origins, and its closest relatives are the Spanish and Italian Sparrows.^[10]

The bird's English and scientific names have the same meaning. The Latin word passer, like the English word "sparrow," was a term for small active birds, coming from a root word referring to speed.^[11][12][13] The Latin word domesticus means "of the house," like the common name a reference to the long association between the sparrow and humans.^[14] The House Sparrow was named by Carl Linné (Carolus Linnaeus), the founder of modern biological taxonomy, as Fringilla domestica. Later the genus Fringilla came to be used only for the Chaffinch and its relatives, and the sparrows came to be placed in the genus Passer created by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760.

[edit] Subspecies

A large number of number of subspecies have been named, and at least ten are recognised. They are differentiated on the basis of size and colour of the cheeks and the shades of the colouration particularly of the chestnut areas in the males.^[15] These subspecies are divided into two groups, the Palearctic domesticus group, and the Oriental indicus group. The indicus group is distinguished by white cheeks, bright colouration on the crown, a smaller bill, and a longer black bib. Migratory birds of the subspecies bactrianus in the indicus group were recorded overlapping with the subspecies domesticus without interbreeding in the 1970s, so the Soviet scientists E. I. Gavrilov and M. N. Korelov proposed indicus to be a separate species. The subspecies biblicus and its relatives are sometimes considered a third group.^[16]

• domesticus group

• P. d. domesticus, the nominate subspecies described by Carl Linné from Sweden, is the only subspecies found in Europe, and is common across northern Asia, besides being the subspecies most widely introduced worldwide.^[15] This includes a number of proposed subspecies, especially from Central Asia which are no longer recognized.^[16]
• P. d. tingitanus, described by Victor Loche in 1867 from Algeria, is found in the Maghreb from Ajdabiya in Libya to Béni Abbès in Algeria, and to Morocco's Atlantic coast. It hybridises extensively with the Spanish Sparrow. It is not very different from the nominate subspecies, but it is smaller, and has a distinctive mottled moult plumage.^[16]
• P. d. niloticus, described by Nicoll and Bonhote in 1909 from El Faiyûm, is found in Egypt along the Nile from Wadi Halfa, where it integrades with rufidorsalis in a narrow zone, north. It also integrades with bibilicus in the Sinai. It is similar to bibilicus, but smaller.^[16]
• P. d. persicus, described by Zarudny and Kudaschev in 1916 from the Karun River in Khūzestān, Iran, is found in the western half of Iran to the south of the Elbruz mountains, gradually integrading with indicus across central Iran.^[16]
• P. d. biblicus, described by Ernst Hartert in 1910 from Sueme in Palestine, is found in the Middle East from the Bosporus to the Sinai in the west and from Azerbaijan to Kuwait in the east. It is paler than domesticus, but it has a grey cheek, and the colours of the chestnut area are not deep.^[16]
• P. d. hyrcanus, described by Zarudny and Kudaschev in 1916 from Astrabad, is found along the southern coast of the Caspian from the region of Talysh in Iranian Azerbaijan to Astrabad (now Gurgan). It integrades with persicus in the Elbruz mountains, and with bibilicus to the west. It is the subspecies with the smallest range.^[16]

• indicus group

• P. d. bactrianus, described by Zarudny and Kudaschev in 1916 from Tashkent, is found in Turkestan and northern Afghanistan. It intergrades with persicus in Baluchistan and with indicus across central Afghanistan. Unlike most other House Sparrow subspecies, it is almost entirely migratory, wintering in the plains of the northern Indian subcontinent. It is found in open country rather than in settlements, which in its range are occupied by the Tree Sparrow.^[16]
• P. d. parkini, described by Hugh Whistler in 1920 from Srinagar, Kashmir, is found in the western Himalayas from the Pamirs to southeastern Nepal. It is migratory, like bactrianus and is larger and more chestnut than indicus.^[15]
• P. d. indicus, described by William Jardine and Prideaux John Selby in 1831 from Bangalore, is found in the Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas, in Sri Lanka, eastern Iran, southwestern Arabia and western Southeast Asia.^[16] This includes a race enigmaticus that is no longer recognized.^[15]
• P. d. hufufae, described by Ticehurst and Cheeseman in 1924 from the town of Al-Hofuf in Saudi Arabia, is found in northeastern Arabia.^[16]
• P. d. rufidorsalis, described by Brehm in 1855 from Khartoum in Sudan, is found in the Nile valley from Wadi Halfa south to Renk in Sudan.^[16]

In North America and Hawaii, birds have evolved differentiation by latitude and climate, and some populations were proposed as races or subspecies.^[17] Harry Church Oberholser gave the subspecies name plecticus to western sparrows in his 1974 Bird Life of Texas.^[18]

[edit] Distribution and habitat

The House Sparrow originated in the Middle East in around 38,000 BC, likely in the Fertile Crescent. It spread along with agriculture to most of Eurasia, and parts of North Africa, but it has spread throughout the world since the middle of the nineteenth century.^[19] In much of eastern Asia it is replaced by its relatives, especially the Tree Sparrow.^[20] It is absent from most of Africa, where it is replaced by a wide variety of its native relatives.^[21] It has been introduced in South Africa and has spread rapidly, but it is competitive with its native relatives.^[22]

The first of many successful introductions to North America occurred when fifty pairs from England were released in New York, by the commissioners of Central Park in 1852, along with other birds which failed to become established.^[23][24] Today its range is spread from northern British Columbia to Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada and down through most of the United States through Central America, with an isolated population in Anchorage, Alaska.^[25] The northern border of its range fluctuates between sixty and seventy degrees latitude. In the southern hemisphere, all continents have been settled with the exception of tropical South America and Antarctica, although Western Australia has attempted to prevent it from settling there.

It is most commonly found in agricultural, urban, or suburban areas, and avoids unmodified areas such as woodlands, forests, grasslands, and deserts.^[26] This bird is abundant in temperate climates, but not universally common, and is scarce in many hilly districts. In cities, towns and villages, even around isolated farms, it can be the most abundant bird.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Behaviour

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The House Sparrow is gregarious at all seasons when feeding, at communal roosts and in its nesting colonies. It is largely sedentary, generally moving only locally over short distances, though two subspecies, bactrianus and parkini, are migratory.^[5] In cold areas House Sparrows roost in streetlights or specially created nests to avoid losing heat during the winter.^[27]

[edit] Food and feeding

Although it is a granivorous species, feeding principally on seeds, the House Sparrow also eats berries, insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Nestlings are fed almost exclusively on insects.^[28]

In spring, flowers—especially those with yellow colours—are often eaten; crocuses, primroses and aconites seem to attract the House Sparrow most.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Breeding and survival

The House Sparrow is a monogamous species, typically mating for life—though pairs often engage in extra-pair copulations, and lost mates are quickly replaced during the breeding season.^[29] The nesting site is varied; under eaves, in holes in masonry or rocks, in ivy or creepers on houses or banks, on the sea-cliffs, or in bushes in bays and inlets. When built in holes or ivy, the nest is an untidy litter of straw and rubbish, abundantly filled with feathers. Large, well-constructed domed nests are often built when the bird nests in trees or shrubs, especially in rural areas.

The House Sparrow is quite aggressive in usurping the nesting sites of other birds, often forcibly evicting the previous occupants, and sometimes even building a new nest directly on top of another active nest with live nestlings. House Martins, Bluebirds, and Sand Martins are especially susceptible to this behavior. However, though this tendency has occasionally been observed in its native habitats (particularly concerning House Martins), it appears to be far more common in habitats in which it has been introduced, such as North America.

The typical clutch size is 5–6 eggs, though clutches ranging from 1–8 eggs have been recorded. The eggs are white, bluish-white or greenish-white, spotted with brown or grey.^[30] Subelliptical in shape,^[31] they range from 20–22 millimetres (0.79–0.87 in) in length and 14–16 millimetres (0.55–0.63 in) in width,^[30] and have an average mass of 2.9 grams (0.10 oz), 7% of which is shell.^[32] Both parents incubate the eggs, which hatch synchronously after 9–16 days.^[31]

Reproductive success increases with age, due principally to changes in the timing of breeding; older birds breed earlier in the season than younger birds do, and fledge more young.^[33]

The oldest known wild House Sparrow lived for nearly two decades; it was found dead 19 years and 9 months after it was ringed (banded) in Denmark.^[34]

[edit] As an invasive species

The House Sparrow has been introduced into Sub-Saharan Africa, North and South America, Australia, many islands of the Caribbean, China, Greenland, Hawaii, Iceland, and New Zealand and they have proliferated with devastating consequences to many native bird species that are still under study.^[35] The House Sparrow has been known to evict native bird species from their nests.^[26]

House sparrows were introduced to Australia between 1863 and 1870. They were released first in Victoria and then to other areas including Sydney, Brisbane, and Hobart. They quickly became a major pest throughout eastern Australia, but have been prevented from establishing themselves in Western Australia where every found specimen is deliberately destroyed.^[36]

While declining somewhat in their adopted homeland, House Sparrows are one of the most abundant birds in North America, with a population estimated at approximately 150 million in the 1940s.^[37]

In the United States and Canada, the House Sparrow is not protected by law.^[38][39] House Sparrows kill adult bluebirds and other native cavity nesters and their young, smash their eggs, and take over their nesting sites,^[40] and as such are major factors in the decline of bluebirds and other native cavity nesters in North America.^[41] However, such behaviors are also observed in native North American species, such as the House Wren and the American Crow.^[37] Because the House Sparrow is smaller than the less aggressive native birds with which it competes, it is impossible to keep them out of nest boxes built for many native birds.^{[citation needed]} Attempts to counter the effects of the House Sparrow on native bird populations include the trapping and shooting of adults and the destruction of their nests and eggs.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] References

[edit] Works cited

• Anderson, Ted R. (2006), Biology of the ubiquitous House Sparrow: from genes to populations, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-1953-0411-X 
• Clement, Peter; Harris, Alan; Davis, John (1993), Finches and Sparrows: An Identification Guide, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-8917-2 
• Groschupf, Kathleen (2001), "Old World Sparrows", in Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B.; Sibley, David, The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behaviour, London: Christopher Helm, pp. 562–564, ISBN 0-7136-6250-6 
• Lewis, Charlton Thomas; Kingery, Hugh Macmaster (1918), An Elementary Latin Dictionary, New York: American Book Company, http://books.google.com/books?id=2ncKAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false 
• Summers-Smith, J. Denis (1988), The Sparrows, Calton, Waterhouses, Staffs, England: T. & A. D. Poyser, ISBN 0-85661-048-8 

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Passer domesticus

Wikispecies has information related to: Passer domesticus

• ARKive – Passer_domesticus/ images and movies of the house sparrow
• Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) webpage about the house sparrow
• Sparrows need hedges helping the house sparrow in the UK
• House Sparrow videos on the Internet Bird Collection
• South Dakota Birds – House Sparrow Information and Photos
• Florida's Introduced Birds: European House Sparrow ("Passer domesticus") – University of Florida/IFAS fact sheet
• Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta