A helicopter main rotor or rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which generates both the aerodynamic lift force that supports the weight of the helicopter, and thrust which counteracts aerodynamic drag in forward flight. Each main rotor is mounted on a vertical mast over the top of the helicopter, as opposed to a helicopter tail rotor, which is mounted on a tail boom. A helicopter's rotor is generally made up of two or more rotor blades. The blade pitch is typically controlled by a swashplate connected to the helicopter flight controls.

Contents 1 History and development 2 Design 2.1 Parts and functions 2.2 Swash plate 2.3 Fully articulated 2.4 Rigid 2.5 Semirigid 2.5.1 Stabilizer bar 2.6 Combination 3 Rotor configurations 3.1 Single main rotor 3.1.1 Tail rotor 3.1.2 Ducted fan 3.1.3 NOTAR 3.1.4 Tip jets 3.2 Dual rotors (counterrotating) 3.2.1 Tandem 3.2.2 Coaxial 3.2.3 Intermeshing 3.2.4 Transverse 4 Blade design 5 Limitations and hazards 5.1 Abrasion in sandy environments 6 References 7 External links

[edit] History and development

Before the development of powered helicopters in the mid 20th century, autogyro pioneer Juan de la Cierva researched and developed many of the fundamentals of the rotor. Cierva is credited with successful development of multi-bladed, fully articulated rotor systems. This type of system is widely used today in many multi-bladed helicopters.

In the 1930s, Arthur Young improved the stability of two-bladed rotor systems with the introduction of a stabilizer bar. This system was used in several Bell and Hiller helicopter models. It is also used in many remote control model helicopters.

[edit] Design

A helicopter rotor is powered by the engine through the transmission to the rotating mast. The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft which extends upward from– and is driven by the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are then attached to the hub by a number of different methods. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the main rotor blades are attached and move relative to the main rotor hub. There are three basic classifications: rigid, semirigid, or fully articulated, although some modern rotor systems use an engineered combination of these classifications.

[edit] Parts and functions

The simple rotor of a Robinson R22 showing (from the top):

• The following are driven by the link rods from the rotating part of the swashplate.
  • Pitch hinges, allowing the blades to twist about the axis extending from blade root to blade tip.
• Teeter hinge, allowing one blade to rise vertically while the other falls vertically. This motion occurs whenever translational relative wind is present, or in response to a cyclic control input.
• Scissor link and counterweight, carries the main shaft rotation down to the upper swashplate
• Rubber covers protect moving and stationary shafts
• Swashplates, transmitting cyclic and collective pitch to the blades (the top one rotates)
• Three non-rotating control rods transmit pitch information to the lower swashplate
• Main mast leading down to main gearbox

[edit] Swash plate

The pitch of main rotor blades can be varied cyclically throughout its rotation in order to control the direction of rotor thrust vector (the part of the rotor disc where the maximum thrust will be developed, front, rear, right side, etc.). Collective pitch is used to vary the magnitude of rotor thrust (increasing or decreasing thrust over the whole rotor disc at the same time). These blade pitch variations are controlled by tilting and/or raising or lowering the swash plate with the flight controls. The vast majority of helicopters maintain a constant rotor speed (RPM) during flight, leaving only the angle of attack of the blades as the sole means of adjusting thrust from the rotor.

The swash plate is two concentric disks or plates, one plate rotates with the mast, connected by idle links, while the other does not rotate. The rotating plate is also connected to the individual blades through pitch links and pitch horns. The non-rotating plate is connected to links which are manipulated by pilot controls, specifically, the collective and cyclic controls.

The swash plate can shift vertically and tilt. Through shifting and tilting, the non-rotating plate controls the rotating plate, which in turn controls the individual blade pitch.

[edit] Fully articulated

Juan de la Cierva developed the fully articulating rotor for the autogyro, and it is the basis of his design that permitted successful helicopter development. In a fully articulated rotor system, each rotor blade is attached to the rotor hub through a series of hinges, which allow the blade to move independently of the others. These rotor systems usually have three or more blades. The blades are allowed to flap, feather, and lead or lag independently of each other. The horizontal hinge, called the flapping hinge, allows the blade to move up and down. This movement is called flapping and is designed to compensate for dissymmetry of lift. The flapping hinge may be located at varying distances from the rotor hub, and there may be more than one hinge. The vertical hinge, called the lead-lag or drag hinge, allows the blade to move back and forth. This movement is called lead-lag, dragging, or hunting. Dampers are usually used to prevent excess back and forth movement around the drag hinge. The purpose of the drag hinge and dampers is to compensate for the acceleration and deceleration caused by Coriolis Effect. Each blade can also be feathered, that is, rotated around its spanwise axis. Feathering the blade means changing the pitch angle of the blade. By changing the pitch angle of the blades the thrust and direction of the main rotor disc can be controlled.

[edit] Rigid

The rigid rotor was developed by Irven Culver to bring the simplicity of fixed-wing flight to helicopters. In a rigid rotor system, the blades, hub, and mast are rigid with respect to each other. The rigid rotor system is mechanically simpler than the fully articulated rotor system. There are no vertical or horizontal hinges so the blades cannot flap or drag, but they can be feathered. Operating loads from flapping and lead/lag forces must be absorbed by bending rather than through hinges. By flexing, the blades themselves compensate for the forces which previously required rugged hinges. The result is a rotor system that has less lag in the control response, because the rotor has much less oscillation.^[1] The rigid rotor system also negates the danger of mast bumping inherent in semi-rigid rotors.^[2] The rigid rotor can also be called a hingeless rotor.^[3]

[edit] Semirigid

A semirigid rotor system allows for two different movements, flapping and feathering. This system is normally composed of two blades, which are rigidly attached to the rotor hub. The hub is then attached to the rotor mast by a trunnion bearing or teetering hinge and is free to tilt with respect to the main rotor shaft. This allows the blades to see-saw or flap together. As one blade flaps down, the other flaps up. This teetering hinge combined with an adequate coning angle maintains each blade's center of gravity, so that the blade does not accelerate as it flaps up, nor decelerate as it flaps down. Secondary flapping hinges may also be provided to allow the rotor to cone in place of a coning angle built into the rotor system. Feathering is accomplished by the feathering hinge, which changes the pitch angle of the blade. Helicopters with semi-rigid rotors are vulnerable to a condition known as mast bumping, which is normally encountered during low-G maneuvers and can cause the rotor flap stops to shear the mast.

[edit] Stabilizer bar

Arthur M. Young found that stability could be increased significantly with the addition of a stabilizer bar (also called a flybar) perpendicular to the two blades. The stabilizer bar has weighted ends which cause the bar to stay relatively stable in the plane of rotation. The stabilizer bar is linked with the swash plate in such a manner as to reduce the effect of external forces on the rotor. The result is a much more stable rotor system which eases the workload of the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft. Stanley Hiller also arrived at a method to improve stability by adding a bar perpendicular to the rotor, but he added short, stubby airfoils, or flaps, at each end. Hiller's "Rotormatic" system was used to deliver cyclic control inputs to the main rotor as a sort of control rotor, the flaps providing added stability by also dampening the effects of external forces on the rotor.

In fly by wire helicopters or RC models, a computer with gyroscopes and a venturi sensor can replace the stabilizer. This flybar-less design has the advantage of easy reconfiguration.

[edit] Combination

Modern rotor systems may use the combined principles of the rotor systems mentioned above. Some rotor hubs incorporate a flexible hub, which allows for blade bending (flexing) without the need for bearings or hinges. These systems, called "flextures",^[4] are usually constructed from composite material. Elastomeric bearings may also be used in place of conventional roller bearings. Elastomeric bearings are bearings constructed from a rubber type material and have limited movement that is perfectly suited for helicopter applications. Flextures and elastomeric bearings require no lubrication and, therefore, require less maintenance. They also absorb vibration, which means less fatigue and longer service life for the helicopter components.

[edit] Rotor configurations

Most helicopters have a single, main rotor but require a separate rotor to overcome torque. This is accomplished through a variable pitch, antitorque rotor or tail rotor. This is the design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300 helicopter and it has become the recognized convention for helicopter design, although designs do vary. When viewed from above, the main rotors of helicopter designs from Germany, United Kingdom and the United States rotate counter-clockwise, all others rotate clockwise. This can make it difficult when discussing aerodynamic effects on the main rotor between different designs, since the effects may manifest on opposite sides of each aircraft.

[edit] Single main rotor

With a single main rotor helicopter, the creation of torque as the engine turns the rotor creates a torque effect that causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the rotor. To eliminate this effect, some sort of antitorque control must be used, with a sufficient margin of power available to allow the helicopter to maintain its heading and provide yaw control. The three most common controls used today are the traditional tail rotor, Eurocopter's Fenestron (also called a fantail), and MD Helicopters' NOTAR.

[edit] Tail rotor

The tail rotor is a smaller rotor mounted so that it rotates vertically or near-vertically at the end of the tail of a traditional single-rotor helicopter. The tail rotor's position and distance from the center of gravity allow it to develop thrust in a direction opposite of the main rotor's rotation, to counter the torque effect created by the main rotor. Tail rotors are simpler than main rotors since they require only collective changes in pitch to vary thrust. The pitch of the tail rotor blades is adjustable by the pilot via the anti-torque pedals, which also provide directional control by allowing the pilot to rotate the helicopter around its vertical axis (thereby changing the direction the craft is pointed).

[edit] Ducted fan

Fenestron and FANTAIL^[5] are trademarks for a ducted fan mounted at the end of the tail boom of the helicopter and used in place of a tail rotor. Ducted fans have between eight and 18 blades arranged with irregular spacing, so that the noise is distributed over different frequencies. The housing is integral with the aircraft skin and allows a high rotational speed, therefore a ducted fan can have a smaller size than a conventional tail rotor.

The Fenestron was used for the first time at the end of the 1960s on the second experimental model of Sud Aviation's SA 340, and produced on the later model Aérospatiale SA 341 Gazelle. Besides Eurocopter and its predecessors, a ducted fan tail rotor was also used on the canceled military helicopter project, the United States Army's RAH-66 Comanche, as the FANTAIL.

[edit] NOTAR

NOTAR, an acronym for NO TAil Rotor, is a helicopter anti-torque system that eliminates the use of the tail rotor on a helicopter. Although the concept took some time to refine, the NOTAR system is simple in theory and works to provide antitorque the same way a wing develops lift using the Coandă effect.^[6] A variable pitch fan is enclosed in the aft fuselage section immediately forward of the tail boom and driven by the main rotor transmission. This fan forces low pressure air through two slots on the right side of the tailboom, causing the downwash from the main rotor to hug the tailboom, producing lift, and thus a measure of antitorque proportional to the amount of airflow from the rotorwash. This is augmented by a direct jet thruster (which also provides directional yaw control) and vertical stabilizers.

Development of the NOTAR system dates back to 1975 when engineers at Hughes Helicopters began concept development work.^[6] In December 1981 Hughes flew a OH-6A fitted with NOTAR for the first time.^[7] A more heavily modified prototype demonstrator first flew in March 1986 and successfully completed an advanced flight-test program, validating the system for future application in helicopter design.^[8] There are currently three production helicopters that incorporate the NOTAR design, all produced by MD Helicopters. This antitorque design also improves safety by eliminating the possibility of personnel walking into the tail rotor.

[edit] Tip jets

Another single main rotor configuration without a tail rotor is the tip jet rotor, where the main rotor is not driven by the mast, but from nozzles on the tip of the rotor blade; which are either pressurized from a fuselage-mounted gas turbine or have their own turbojet, ramjet or rocket thrusters. Although this method is simple and eliminates torque, the prototypes that have been built are less fuel efficient than conventional helicopters and produced more noise. The Percival P.74 was underpowered and was not able to achieve flight, while the Hiller YH-32 Hornet had good lifting capability but was performed poorly otherwise. Other aircraft relied on supplemental thrust so that the tipjets could be shut down and the rotor could autorotate after the fashion of an autogyro. The experimental Fairey Jet Gyrodyne and 40-seat Fairey Rotodyne passenger prototype were evaluated to have flown very well using this method. Perhaps the most unusual design of this type was the Rotary Rocket Roton ATV, which was originally envisioned to take off utilizing a rocket-tipped rotor. No tip jet rotorcraft have ever entered into production.

[edit] Dual rotors (counterrotating)

Counterrotating rotors are rotorcraft configurations with a pair or more of large horizontal rotors turning in opposite directions to counteract the effects of torque on the aircraft without relying on an antitorque tail rotor. This allows the power normally required to drive the tail rotor to be applied to the main rotors, increasing the aircraft's lifting capacity. Primarily, there are three common configurations that use the counterrotating effect to benefit the rotorcraft. Tandem rotors are two rotors with one mounted behind the other. Coaxial rotors are two rotors that are mounted one above the other with the same axis. Intermeshing rotors are two rotors that are mounted close to each other at a sufficient angle to allow the rotors to intermesh over the top of the aircraft. Another configuration found on tiltrotors and some earlier helicopters is called transverse rotors where the pair of rotors are mounted at each end of wing-type structures or outriggers.

[edit] Tandem

Tandem rotors are two horizontal main rotor assemblies mounted one behind the other. Tandem rotors achieve pitch attitude changes to accelerate and decelerate the helicopter through a process called differential collective pitch. To pitch forward and accelerate, the rear rotor increases collective pitch, raising the tail and the front rotor decreases collective pitch, simultaneously dipping the nose. To pitch upward while decelerating (or moving rearward), the front rotor increases collective pitch to raise the nose and the rear rotor decreases collective pitch to lower the tail. Yaw control is developed through opposing cyclic pitch in each rotor; to pivot right, the front rotor tilts right and the rear rotor tilts left, and to pivot left, the front rotor tilts left and the rear rotor tilts right.

[edit] Coaxial

Coaxial rotors are a pair of rotors mounted one above the other on the same shaft and turning in opposite directions. The advantage of the coaxial rotor is that, in forward flight, the lift provided by the advancing halves of each rotor compensates for the retreating half of the other, eliminating one of the key effects of dissymmetry of lift: retreating blade stall. However, other design considerations plague coaxial rotors. There is an increased mechanical complexity of the rotor system because it requires linkages and swashplates for two rotor systems. Add that each rotor system needs to be turned in opposite directions means that the mast itself is more complex, and provisions for making pitch changes to the upper rotor system must pass through the lower rotor system.

[edit] Intermeshing

Intermeshing rotors on a helicopter are a set of two rotors turning in opposite directions, with each rotor mast mounted on the helicopter with a slight angle to the other so that the blades intermesh without colliding. This configuration is sometimes referred to as a synchropter. Intermeshing rotors have high stability and powerful lifting capability. The arrangement was successfully used in Nazi Germany for a small anti-submarine warfare helicopter, the Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri. During the Cold War, the American company, Kaman Aircraft produced the HH-43 Huskie for the USAF firefighting and rescue missions. The latest Kaman model, the Kaman K-MAX, is a dedicated sky crane design.

[edit] Transverse

Transverse rotors are mounted on the end of wings or outriggers, perpendicular to the body of the aircraft. Similar to tandem rotors and intermeshing rotors, the transverse rotor also uses differential collective pitch. But like the intermeshing rotors, the transverse rotors use the concept for changes in the roll attitude of the rotorcraft. This configuration is found on two of the first viable helicopters, the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 and the Focke-Achgelis Fa 223, as well as the world's largest helicopter ever built, the Mil Mi-12. It is also the configuration found on tiltrotors, such as Bell's XV-15 and the newer V-22 Osprey.

[edit] Blade design

The blades of a helicopter are long, narrow airfoils with a high aspect ratio, a shape which minimises drag from tip vortices (see the wings of a glider for comparison). They generally contain a degree of washout to reduce the lift generated at the tips, where the airflow is fastest and vortex generation would be a significant problem. Rotor blades are made out of various materials, including aluminium, composite structure and steel or titanium with erosion shields along the leading edge.

[edit] Limitations and hazards

Helicopters with teetering rotors, for example the two-blade system on the Bell, Robinson and others, must not be subjected to a low-g condition because such rotor systems do not control the fuselage attitude. This can result in the fuselage assuming an attitude controlled by momentum and tail rotor thrust that causes the tail boom to intersect the main rotor tip-path plane, or result in the blade roots contacting the main rotor drive shaft causing the blades to separate from the hub (mast bumping).

[edit] Abrasion in sandy environments

When operating in sandy environments, sand hitting the moving rotor blades erodes their surface. This can damage the rotors; the erosion also presents serious and costly maintenance problems.^[9]

The abrasion strips on helicopter rotor blades are made of titanium, which is very hard, but less hard than sand; so when a helicopter is flown near to the ground in desert environments abrasion occurs, and at night there is a visible corona or halo around the rotor blades, caused by the sand hitting the titanium and causing it to spark and oxidize.^{[10] [11]}

In August 2009, Michael Yon, an American journalist attached to the British Army in Afghanistan, referred to the rotor-blade halo as the "Kopp-Etchells Effect", after two soldiers who were killed in Afghanistan.^[12]

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Rotor Analysis - Blade Element Momentum Theory
• Helicopter Rotorhead Close-up Image Gallery
• "Helicopter Aircraft". US Patent 2,368,698, for flybar invention, by Arthur Young