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The hacker ethic comprises the values and philosophy that are standard in the hacker community. The early hacker culture and resulting philosophy originated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the 1950s and 1960s. The term 'hacker ethic' is attributed to journalist Steven Levy as described in his book titled Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, written in 1984. The guidelines of the hacker ethic make it easy to see how computers have evolved into the personal devices we know and rely upon today. The key points within this ethic are that of access, free information, and improvement to quality of life.

While some tenets of hacker ethic were described in other texts like Computer Lib/Dream Machines (1974) by Theodor Nelson, Levy appears to have been the first to document and historicize both the philosophy and the founders of the philosophy.

Levy explains that MIT housed an early IBM 704 computer inside the Electronic Accounting Machinery (EAM) room in 1959. This room became the staging grounds for early hackers as MIT students from the Tech Model Railroad Club stole inside the EAM room after hours to attempt programming the 30 tonne, 9 foot tall computer.

The boys defined a hack as a project undertaken or a product built not solely to fulfil some constructive goal, but with some wild pleasure taken in mere involvement.^[1] The term “hack” arose from MIT lingo as the word had long been used to describe college pranks that MIT students would regularly devise. Hackers push programs beyond what they are designed to do. Levy notes that, at other universities, professors were making public proclamations that computers would never be able to beat a human being in chess. Hackers knew better. They would be the ones who would guide computers to greater heights than anyone expected.^[2]

The Hacker Ethic was a “new way of life, with a philosophy, an ethic and a dream”. However, the elements of the Hacker Ethic were not openly debated and discussed, rather they were accepted and silently agreed upon.^[3]

Contents 1 The hacker ethics 1.1 Sharing 1.2 Hands-on imperative 1.3 Community and collaboration 2 Levy's "true hackers" 3 New hacker ethic 4 Other descriptions of hacker ethic 5 Free software, open-source software, and hacker ethic 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit] The hacker ethics

As Levy stated in the preface of Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution,^[4] the general tenets or principles of hacker ethic include:

• Sharing
• Openness
• Decentralization
• Free access to computers
• World Improvement

In addition to those principles listed above, Levy also described more specific hacker ethics and beliefs in chapter 2, The Hacker Ethic.^[5] The ethics he described in chapter 2 are quoted here.

• Access to computers—and anything which might teach you something about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-On Imperative!
• – Levy is recounting hackers' abilities to learn and build upon pre-existing ideas and systems. He believes that access gives hackers the opportunity to take things apart, fix, or improve upon them and to learn and understand how they work. This gives them the knowledge to create new and even more interesting things (Levy, 1984:226)^[6]. Access aids the expansion of technology.
• All information should be free.
• —linking directly with access, information needs to be free for hackers to fix, improve, and reinvent systems. A free exchange of information allows for greater overall creativity.^[7] In the hacker viewpoint, any system could benefit from an easy flow of information.^[8]
• Mistrust authority—promote decentralization.

• The best way to promote the free exchange of information is to have an open system that presents no boundaries between a hacker and his quest for knowledge. Hackers believe that bureaucracies, whether corporate, government, or university, are flawed systems.^[9]

• Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not criteria such as degrees, age, race, sex, or position.
  Inherent in the hacker ethic is a meritocratic system where superficiality is disregarded in esteem of skill. Levy articulates that criteria such as age, sex, race, position, and qualification are deemed irrelevant within the hacker community.^[10] Hacker skill is the ultimate determinant of acceptance. Such a code within the hacker community fosters the advance of hacking and software development.
  Testament to the hacker ethic of equal opportunity,^[11] Peter Deutsch, a twelve-year-old hacker, was accepted in the TX-0 community, though was not recognised by non-hacker graduate students.
• You can create art and beauty on a computer.

• Hackers deeply appreciate innovative techniques which allow programs to perform complicated tasks with few instructions.^[12] A program's code was considered to hold a beauty of its own, having been carefully composed and artfully arranged.^[13] Learning to create programs which used the least amount of space almost became a game between the early hackers.^[14]

• Computers can change your life for the better.

• Hackers felt that computers had enriched their lives, given their lives focus, and made their lives adventurous. Hackers regarded computers as Aladdin's lamps that they could control.^[15] They believed that everyone in society could benefit from experiencing such power and that if everyone could interact with computers in the way that hackers did, then the Hacker Ethic might spread through society and computers would improve the world.^[16] The hacker succeeded in turning dreams of endless possibilities into realities. The hackers primary object was to teach society that "the world opened up by the computer was a limitless one" (Levy 230:1984)^[17]

[edit] Sharing

According to Levy's account, sharing was the norm and expected within the non-corporate hacker culture. The principle of sharing stemmed from the atmosphere and resources at MIT. During the early days of computers and programming, the hackers at MIT would develop a program and share it.

If the hack was particularly good, then the program might be posted on a board somewhere near one of the computers. Other programs that could be built upon and improved were saved to tapes and added to a drawer of programs—readily accessible to all the other hackers. At any time, a fellow hacker might reach into the drawer, pick out the program, and begin adding to it or "bumming" it to make it better (bumming refers to the process of making the code more concise so that more can be done in fewer instructions).

In the second generation of hackers, sharing was about sharing with the general public in addition to sharing with other hackers. A particular organization of hackers that was concerned with sharing computers with the general public was a group called Community Memory. This group of hackers and idealists put computers in public places for anyone to use. The first community computer was placed outside of Leopold's Records in Berkeley, California.

Another sharing of resources occurred when Bob Albrecht provided considerable resources for a non-profit organization called People's Computer Company (PCC). PCC opened a computer center where anyone could use the computers there for fifty cents per hour.

This second generation's sharing contributed to the battles of free and open software. In fact, when Bill Gates' version of BASIC for the Altair was shared among the hacker community, Gates lost a considerable sum of money because few users payed for the software. As a result, Gates wrote an Open Letter to Hobbyists.^[18][19] This letter was published by several computer magazines and newsletters—most notably that of the Homebrew Computer Club where much of the sharing occurred.

[edit] Hands-on imperative

Many of the principles and tenets of Hacker Ethic contribute to a common goal—the Hands-On Imperative. As Levy described in chapter 2, "Hackers believe that essential lessons can be learned about the systems—about the world—from taking things apart, seeing how they work, and using this knowledge to create new and more interesting things."^[20]

Employing the Hands-On Imperative requires free access, open information, and the sharing of knowledge. To a true hacker, if the Hands-On Imperative is restricted, then the ends justify the means to make it unrestricted so that improvements can be made. When these principles are not present, hackers tend to work around them. For example, when the computers at MIT were protected either by physical locks or login programs, the hackers there systematically worked around them in order to have access to the machines. Hackers assumed a "wilful blindness" in the pursuit of perfection.^[21]

It is important to note that this behavior was not malicious in nature—the MIT hackers did not seek to harm the systems or their users (although occasional practical jokes were played using the computer systems). This deeply contrasts with the modern, media-encouraged image of hackers who crack secure systems in order to steal information or complete an act of cybervandalism.

[edit] Community and collaboration

Throughout writings about hackers and their work processes, a common value of community and collaboration is present. For example, in Levy's Hackers, each generation of hackers had geographically based communities where collaboration and sharing occurred. For the hackers at MIT, it was the labs where the computers were running. For the hardware hackers (second generation) and the game hackers (third generation) the geographic area was centered in Silicon Valley where the Homebrew Computer Club and the People's Computer Company helped hackers network, collaborate, and share their work.

The concept of community and collaboration is still relevant today, although hackers are no longer limited to collaboration in geographic regions. Now collaboration takes place via the Internet. Eric S. Raymond identifies and explains this concept shift in The Cathedral and the Bazaar.

Before cheap Internet, there were some geographically compact communities where the culture encouraged Weinberg's egoless programming, and a developer could easily attract a lot of skilled kibitzers and co-developers. Bell Labs, the MIT AI and LCS labs, UC Berkeley—these became the home of innovations that are legendary and still potent.^[22]

Raymond also notes that the success of Linux coincided with the wide availability of the World Wide Web. The value of community is still in high practice and use today.

[edit] Levy's "true hackers"

Levy identifies several "true hackers" who significantly influenced the hacker ethic. Some well-known "true hackers" include:

• John McCarthy—The founder of the Artificial Intelligence lab at MIT.
• Bill Gosper—A mathematician and hacker.
• Richard Greenblatt
• Richard Stallman—A programmer and political activist who is well-known for Emacs and the Free Software Movement.

Levy also identified the "hardware hackers" (the "second generation", mostly centered in Silicon Valley) and the "game hackers" (or the "third generation"). All three generations of hackers, according to Levy, embodied the principles of the hacker ethic.

Some Levy's "second-generation" hackers include:

• Steve Wozniak—One of two Steves that founded Apple, Inc.
• Bob Marsh—A designer of the Sol-20 computer.
• Steve Dompier—A homebrew member and hacker worked with the early Altair.
• Fred Moore—An activist and founder of the Homebrew Computer Club.
• Lee Felsenstein—A hardware hacker and co-founder of Community Memory and Homebrew. A designer of the Sol-20 computer.

Levy's "third generation" practitioners of hacker ethic include:

• John Harris—One of the first programmers hired at On-Line Systems (later became Sierra Entertainment).
• Ken Williams—Along with wife Roberta, founded On-Line Systems after working at IBM.

[edit] New hacker ethic

Some have postulated that a "New Hacker Ethic" has evolved out of the older hacker ethic that originated at MIT. Steven Mizrach, who identifies himself with CyberAnthropolist studies,^[23] explored this idea of "New Hacker Ethic" in his essay titled Is there Hacker Ethic for 90s Hackers?.

Identification of the "New Hacker Ethic" implies a radical shift in hacker ethic. While the nature of hacker activity has evolved due to the availability of new technologies (for example, the mainstreaming of the personal computer or the social connectivity of the internet), the hacker ethics—particularly those of access, sharing, and community—remain the same.

[edit] Other descriptions of hacker ethic

Later in 2001, Finnish philosopher Pekka Himanen promoted the hacker ethic in opposition to the Protestant work ethic. In Himanen's opinion the hacker ethic is more closely related to the virtue ethics found in the writings of Plato and of Aristotle.

For Himanen (who wrote The Hacker Ethic), Linus Torvalds (prologue), and Manuel Castells (epilogue), the hacker ethic centers around passion, hard work, creativity and joy in creating software. Both Himanen and Torvalds were inspired by the Sampo Finnish mythology. The Sampo, described in the Kalevala, was a magical artifact constructed by Ilmarinen, the blacksmith god, that brought good fortune to its holder; nobody knows exactly what it was supposed to be. The Sampo has been interpreted in many ways: a world pillar or world tree, a compass or astrolabe, a chest containing a treasure, a Byzantine coin die, a decorated Vendel period shield, a Christian relic, etc. In the Kalevala, compiler Lönnrot interpreted it to be a quern or mill of some sort that made flour, salt, and gold out of thin air.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Free software, open-source software, and hacker ethic

Free and open source software (often termed FOSS) is the descendant of the hacker ethics that Levy described. The hackers who hold true to the hacker ethics listed above—especially the Hands-On Imperative—are usually supporters of free software and/or open source software. This is because free and open source software allows hackers to access the code used to create the software to improve or reuse it. In effect the free and open source software movements embody all of the hacker ethics.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] See also

• Ethics
• Ethical code
• Free software movement

[edit] References

1. ^ Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 9
2. ^ Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 36
3. ^ Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 26
4. ^ Levy, S: Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, page ix. Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984.
5. ^ Levy, S: Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, pages 26–36. Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984.
6. ^ Levy,Steven(1984)Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3-36
7. ^ Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 27
8. ^ Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 28
9. ^ Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 28
10. ^ Levy, S. (1984) Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3–36
11. ^ For further discussion on liberalism and hacking including equal opportunity see Coleman and Golub's 'Hacker practice'[1] Moral genres and the cultural articulation of liberalism.
12. ^ Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 31
13. ^ Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 30–31
14. ^ Levy,Steven(1984)Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3–36
15. ^ Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 33
16. ^ Levy, S. 1984. Hackers:Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 36
17. ^ Levy,Steven(1984)Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York, pp 3–36
18. ^ Charles Leadbetter (2008). We-Think. Profile Books. 
19. ^ Fiona Macdonald (12 March 2008), Get a fair share of creativity, Metro 
20. ^ Levy, S: "Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution", pages 27–36. Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984.
21. ^ Levy, S 1984. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. pg 27
22. ^ Raymond, E. The Cathedral and the Bazaar
23. ^ CyberAnthropology main page by Steven Mizrach

• Himanen, Pekka. 2001. The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age. Random House. ISBN 0-375-50566-0
• Levy, Steven. 2001. (1984). "Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution." Updated edition. Penguin. ISBN 0141000511

[edit] External links

• Enid Gabriella Coleman, an anthropologist at NYU, works on hackers and has written extensively on the hacker ethic and culture [2] [3]
• Tom Chance's essay on The Hacker Ethic and Meaningful Work
• Hacker ethic from the Jargon file
• Directory of free software
• ITERATIVE DISCOURSE AND THE FORMATION OF NEW SUBCULTURES by Steve Mizrach describes the hacker terminology, including the term cracker.
• Richard Stallman's Personal Website
• Is there a Hacker Ethic for 90s Hackers? by Steven Mizrach
• The Hacker's Ethics by the Cyberpunk Project