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Upper and Lower human gastrointestinal tract

The Digestive System is the system by which ingested food is acted upon by physical and chemical means to provide the body with absorbable nutrients and to excrete waste products; in mammals the system includes the alimentary canal extending from the mouth to the anus, and the hormones and enzymes assisting in digestion.

In an adult male human, the GI tract is approximately 6.5 metres (20 ft) long and consists of the upper and lower GI tracts. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, reflecting the embryological origin of each segment of the tract.^[1]

[edit] Upper gastrointestinal tract

The upper Gastrointestinal tract consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum proximal to the ligament of Treitz (or the Suspensory muscle of the duodenum).

The mouth (or buccal cavity) contains the openings of the salivary glands; the tongue; and the teeth.
Behind the mouth lies the pharynx which prevents food from entering the voice box and leads to a hollow muscular tube, the esophagus.
Peristalsis takes place, which is the contraction of muscles to propel the food down the esophagus which extends through the chest and pierces the diaphragm to reach the stomach.

[edit] Lower gastrointestinal tract

The lower gastrointestinal tract comprises the most of the intestines and the anus.

Bowel or intestine
- Small intestine, two of the three parts:
  - Duodenum - Here the digestive juices from pancreas and liver mix together
  - Jejunum - It is the midsection of the intestine, connecting Duodenum to Ileum.
  - Ileum - It has villi in where all soluble molecules are absorbed into the blood.
- Large intestine, which has three parts:
  - Cecum (the vermiform appendix is attached to the cecum).
  - Colon (ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and sigmoid flexure)
  - Rectum
Anus

[edit] Component Organs

The main organs of the digestive system are:

Esophagus
Stomach
Small and Large intestines
Mouth
Anus
Appendix

Other organs consist of the:

Gallbladder
Liver
Pancreas

[edit] Accessory organs

Accessory organs to the alimentary canal include the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The liver secretes bile into the small intestine via the bile duct, employing the gallbladder as a reservoir. Apart from storing and concentrating bile, the gallbladder has no other specific function. The pancreas secretes an isosmotic fluid containing bicarbonate, which helps neutralize the acidic chyme, and several enzymes, including trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, and pancreatic amylase, as well as nucleolytic enzymes (deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease), into the small intestine. Both of these secretory organs aid in digestion.

[edit] Embryology

The gut is an endoderm-derived structure. At approximately the 16th day of human development, the embryo begins to fold ventrally (with the embryo's ventral surface becoming concave) in two directions: the sides of the embryo fold in on each other and the head and tail fold towards one another. The result is that a piece of the yolk sac, an endoderm-lined structure in contact with the ventral aspect of the embryo, begins to be pinched off to become the primitive gut. The yolk sac remains connected to the gut tube via the vitelline duct. Usually this structure regresses during development; in cases where it does not, it is known as Meckel's diverticulum.

During fetal life, the primitive gut can be divided into three segments: foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Although these terms are often used in reference to segments of the primitive gut, they are nevertheless used regularly to describe components of the definitive gut as well.

Each segment of the primitive gut gives rise to specific gut and gut-related structures in the adult. Components derived from the gut proper, including the stomach and colon, develop as swellings or dilatations of the primitive gut. In contrast, gut-related derivatives—that is, those structures that derive from the primitive gut but are not part of the gut proper—in general develop as outpouchings of the primitive gut. The blood vessels supplying these structures remain constant throughout development.^[2]

part	part in adult	Gives rise to	Arterial supply
foregut	the pharynx, to the upper duodenum	pharynx, esophagus, stomach, upper duodenum, respiratory tract (including the lungs), liver, gallbladder, and pancreas	branches of the celiac artery
midgut	lower duodenum, to the first two-thirds of the transverse colon	lower duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and first two-thirds of the transverse colon	branches of the superior mesenteric artery
hindgut	last third of the transverse colon, to the upper part of the anal canal	last third of the transverse colon, descending colon, rectum, and upper part of the anal canal	branches of the inferior mesenteric artery

[edit] Physiology

[edit] Specialization of organs

Four organs are subject to specialization in the kingdom Animalia.

The first organ is the tongue which is only present in the phylum Chordata.
The second organ is the esophagus. The crop is an enlargement of the esophagus in birds, insects, and other invertebrates that is used to store food temporarily.
The third organ is the stomach . In addition to a glandular stomach (proventriculus), birds have a muscular "stomach" called the ventriculus or "gizzard." The gizzard is used to mechanically grind up food.
The fourth organ is the large intestine. An outpouching of the large intestine called the cecum is present in non-ruminant herbivores such as rabbits. It aids in digestion of plant material such as cellulosethese four organs are the most imprtant specialised organs in the kingdom animilai.

[edit] Transit time

The time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes 2.5 to 3 hours after meal for 50% of stomach contents to empty into the intestines. Total emptying of the stomach takes 4 to 5 hours. Subsequently, 50% emptying of the small intestine takes 2.5 to 3 hours. Finally, transit through the colon takes 30 to 40 hours.^[3]

[edit] Pathology

There are a number of diseases and conditions affecting the gastrointestinal system, including:

Cholera
Colorectal cancer
Diverticulitis
Enteric duplication cyst
Gastroenteritis, also known as "stomach flu";an inflammation of the stomach and intestines
Giardiasis
Inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis)
Irritable bowel syndrome
Pancreatitis
Peptic ulcer disease
Appendicitis

[edit] Immune function

The gastrointestinal tract is also a prominent part of the immune system.^[4] The surface area of the digestive tract is estimated to be the surface area of a football field. As such, the immune system must work hard to prevent pathogens from entering into blood and lymph.^[5] The low pH (ranging from 1 to 4) of the stomach is fatal for many microorganisms that enter it. Similarly, mucus (containing IgA antibodies) neutralizes many of these microorganisms. Other factors in the GI tract help with immune function as well, including enzymes in the saliva and bile. Enzymes such as Cyp3A4, along with the antiporter activities, are also instrumental in the intestine's role of detoxification of antigens and xenobiotics, such as drugs, involved in first pass metabolism. Health-enhancing intestinal bacteria serve to prevent the overgrowth of potentially harmful bacteria in the gut. These two types of bacteria compete for space and "food," as there are limited resources within the intestinal tract. A ratio of 80-85% beneficial to 15-20% potentially harmful bacteria is generally considered normal within the intestines. Microorganisms are also kept at bay by an extensive immune system comprising the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT).

[edit] Histology

General structure of the gut wall.

The gastrointestinal tract has a uniform general histology with some differences which reflect the specialization in functional anatomy.^[6] The GI tract can be divided into 4 concentric layers:

Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis externa (the external muscle layer)
Adventitia or serosa

[edit] Mucosa

The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract that is surrounding the lumen, or space within the tube. This layer comes in direct contact with the food (or bolus), and is responsible for absorption and secretion, important processes in digestion.

The mucosa can be divided into:

The mucosae are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract, facing a low pH in the stomach, absorbing a multitude of different substances in the small intestine, and also absorbing specific quantities of water in the large intestine. Reflecting the varying needs of these organs, the structure of the mucosa can consist of invaginations of secretory glands (e.g., gastric pits), or it can be folded in order to increase surface area (examples include villi and plicae circulares).

[edit] Submucosa

The submucosa consists of a dense irregular layer of connective tissue with large blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves branching into the mucosa and muscularis externa. It contains Meissner's plexus, an enteric nervous plexus, situated on the inner surface of the muscularis externa.

[edit] Muscularis externa

The muscularis externa consists of an inner circular layer and a longitudinal outer muscular layer. The circular muscle layer prevents the food from going backwards and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract. The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the bolus, or balled-up food, through the GI tract. Between the two muscle layers are the myenteric or Auerbach's plexus.

[edit] Adventitia

The adventitia consists of several layers of epithelia. When the adventitia is facing the mesentery or peritoneal fold, the adventitia is covered by a mesothelium supported by a thin connective tissue layer, together forming a serosa, or serous membrane.

[edit] See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Digestive system

[edit] Notes

^ lungs; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright. Human Biology and Health. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ Bruce M. Carlson (2004). Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (3rd ed.). Saint Louis: Mosby. ISBN 0-323-03649-X.
^ Colorado State University > Gastrointestinal Transit: How Long Does It Take? Last updated on May 27, 2006. Author: R. Bowen.
^ Richard Coico, Geoffrey Sunshine, Eli Benjamini (2003). Immunology: a short course. New York: Wiley-Liss. ISBN 0-471-22689-0.
^ Animal Physiology textbook
^ Abraham L. Kierszenbaum (2002). Histology and cell biology: an introduction to pathology. St. Louis: Mosby. ISBN 0-323-01639-1.

[edit] References

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health.

[edit] External links

[0] ungs; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright. Human Biology and Health. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.

[1] Bruce M. Carlson (2004). Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (3rd ed.). Saint Louis: Mosby. ISBN 0-323-03649-X.

[2] Colorado State University > Gastrointestinal Transit: How Long Does It Take? Last updated on May 27, 2006. Author: R. Bowen.

[3] Richard Coico, Geoffrey Sunshine, Eli Benjamini (2003). Immunology: a short course. New York: Wiley-Liss. ISBN 0-471-22689-0.

[4] Animal Physiology textbook

[5] Abraham L. Kierszenbaum (2002). Histology and cell biology: an introduction to pathology. St. Louis: Mosby. ISBN 0-323-01639-1.

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