Those known as the father, mother, or considered the founder of a scientific field are the scientists who have made important contributions to that field. In some fields several people are considered the founders, while in others the title of being the "mother" or "father" is debatable. [edit] Natural sciences [edit] Biology [edit] Chemistry [edit] Earth sciences [edit] Medicine and physiology [edit] Physics and astronomy [edit] Formal sciences [edit] Mathematics [edit] Systems theory [edit] Social sciences [edit] Economics [edit] Fields [edit] Schools of thought [edit] Theories [edit] See also [edit] References - ^ Fahd, Toufic, "Botany and agriculture", pp. 815 , in Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
- ^ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
- ^ Suggested 1802 by German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term that year in France by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
- ^ a b Strong, W.F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys", Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521, http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php
- ^ Schuh, Randall T. (1995). True Bugs of the World: Classification and Natural History. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2066-0. , p. 11
- ^ Darwin, Charles (1842 (published 1909)), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
- ^ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
- ^ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
- ^ The Father of Genetics
- ^ Jordan, David Starr (1905). A Guide to the Study of Fishes. Henry Holt and Company. , online at [1], p.390: "Far greater than either of these... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."
- ^ "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology," Department of Cryptogamic Botany, Swedish Museum of Natural History. Link. 17 December 1999.
- ^ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
- ^ Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University
- ^ Prathap, Gangan (March 2004), "Indian science slows down: The decline of open-ended research", Current Science 86 (6): 768-769 [768]
- ^ Ramón y Cajal, Santiago [1897] (1999). Advice for a Young Investigator, translated by Neely Swanson and Larry W. Swanson, Cambridge: MIT Press.
- ^ p. 287, On social structure and science (volume 1996 of Heritage of sociology), Robert King Merton and Piotr Sztompka, University of Chicago Press, 1996, ISBN 0226520714.
- ^ Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
- ^ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
- ^ Chung, King-Thom and Ferris, Deam Hunter (1996). Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931): pioneer of general microbiology. AMS News 62, 539-543.
- ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 10. ISBN 094546648X. http://mises.org/books/histofthought1.pdf.
- ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
- ^ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2.
- ^ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica A 64: 246–258 [247]
- ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
- ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
- ^ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
- ^ a b c Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity , That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution (Epilogue: A Tale of Three Fathers). ISBN 0-262-11273-6.
- ^ Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
- ^ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2 Aug 2007
- ^ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938.
- ^ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
- ^ a b Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
- ^ p. 12, Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international date line, Avraham Ariel and Nora Ariel Berger, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0275988953.
- ^ a b Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
- ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
- ^ Medvei, Victor Cornelius (1993), The History of Clinical Endocrinology: A Comprehensive Account of Endocrinology from Earliest Times to the Present Day, Taylor and Francis, p. 46, ISBN 1850704279
- ^ a b Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 96. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
- ^ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
- ^ G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)
- ^ p. 389, "Eratosthenes", D. R. Dicks, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie, vol. 4, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.
- ^ p. 19, Reader's guide to the history of science, Arne Hessenbruch, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 188496429X.
- ^ a b Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
- ^ Mikhalevsky, P; Godin, O; Naugolnykh, K; Dubrovsky, N (2005). "Leonid Maksimovich Brekhovskikh". Physics Today 58 (11): 70. doi:10.1063/1.2155769.
- ^ Diseases of the Mind: Highlights of American Psychiatry through 1900 - Benjamin Rush
- ^ Hall, James W. (1999). Handbook of Otoacoustic Emissions. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-873-9. , p. 2: the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University..."
- ^ Hall, James W.; H. Gustav Mueller (1998). Audiologists Desk Reference: Audiolologic Management, Rehabilitation and Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-711-2. , p. 912: "Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."
- ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
- ^ Durand, V. Mark, Jim; David H Barlow (2005). Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-03128-3. , p. 235: "In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."
- ^ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12/29/2004.
- ^ Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2).
- ^ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631–1641.
- ^ Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'"
- ^ Log In Problems
- ^ History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology
- ^ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
- ^ Geneticists Mourn Loss of the ‘Father of Genetic Medicine’
- ^ Mostafa Shehata, MD (2004), "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration", J Med Ethics 12, p. 171-176 [176].
- ^ = DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2007/05/10/scegypt10.xml How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007.
- ^ Jimmy Dunn, Imhotep, Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser.[2]
- ^ Nirupama Laroia, M.D. and Deeksha Sharma (June 2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus", Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2), p. 94-98.
- ^ Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus., U.S. National Library of Medicine
- ^ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 2009-10-31.
- ^ p. 4, Surgery: Basic Science and Clinical Evidence, Jeffrey A. Norton, Philip S. Barie, R. Randal Bollinger, Alfred E. Chang, Stephen F. Lowry, Sean J Mulvihill, M.D., Harvey I Pass, M.D., Robert W Thompson, M.D., Springer, 2008, ISBN 0387308008.
- ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
- ^ p. 361, Pain management: a practical guide for clinicians, Richard S. Weiner, CRC Press, 2002, ISBN 0849309263.
- ^ de Vaux, Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy" (in English). http://www.fauchard.org/publications/remembrance.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-22.
- ^ Black, Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0208-0. , p.9: "Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of wheat flour, cow's milk, malt flour and bicarbonate of potash."
- ^ Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online
- ^ [3]
- ^ David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
- ^ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
- ^ Oursler, Fulton; Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday. , p.270: "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."
- ^ a b A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
- ^ a b H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
- ^ Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
- ^ Aaen-Stockdale, Craig (2008), "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics", Perception 37 (4): 636–638
- ^ Lee, Martin A.; Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3062-3. , p.6: "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'". See also Harry Armstrong.
- ^ Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
- ^ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
- ^ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
- ^ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
- ^ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
- ^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
- ^ Kurland, Gerald. 91972). Thomas Edison, father of electricity and master inventor of our modern age, Charlotteville, N.Y.: SamHar Press.
- ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911
- ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 15: 329–331
- ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (August 2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928–2005", Historia Mathematica 32 (3): 271-274
- ^ Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1987), "The “day of Brahman” in the work of Āryabhata", Archive for History of Exact Sciences 38 (1): 13-22}}
- ^ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
- ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0595368778.
- ^ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5.
- ^ Resources
- ^ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
- ^ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
- ^ [4]. URL accessed December 5, 2006.
- ^ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
- ^ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
- ^ a b Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, The Hindu, June 23, 2006.
- ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 228. ISBN 0471543977. "Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khwarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers."
- ^ Derbyshire, John (2006). "The Father of Algebra". Unknown Quantity: A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 31. ISBN 030909657X. "Diophantus, the father of algebra, in whose honor I have named this chapter, lived in Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, in either the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd century CE."
- ^ p. 750, Rudiments of Mathematics Part 1, M. N. Mukherjee, P. Mukhopadhyay, S. Sinha Roy & U. Dasgupta, Academic Publishers, 2008, 5th ed., ISBN 8189781545.
- ^ p. 147, Collisions, rings, and other Newtonian N-body problems, Donald Saari, American Mathematical Society, 2005, ISBN 0821832506.
- ^ Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
- ^ Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–2.
- ^ George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press.
- ^ "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>.
- ^ Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
- ^ Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
- ^ Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
- ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
- ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
- ^ Boyer (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration". A History of Mathematics (Second Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. pp. 162. ISBN 0471543977. "For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180-ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as "the father of trigonometry." Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles."
- ^ Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE (Ore (1988). "Diophantine Problems". Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc.. pp. 176–179. ISBN 0-486-65620-9. "The tablet, catalogued as Plimpton 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans. … It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables." )
- ^ Michael J. Crowe (1994). A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System. Dover Publications; Reprint edition.
- ^ Edward Lorenz, father of chaos theory and butterfly effect, dies at 90 - MIT News Office
- ^ Conway, F., and Siegelman, J., 2005. Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert Wiener, the father of cybernetics. Basic Books, New York. 423pp. ISBN 0-7382-0368-8
- ^ Bell Labs website: "For example, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, had a passion..."
- ^ 2004 Distinguished Alumni
- ^ Bryson, A.E.; Ho, Y.C. (1975). Applied optimal control. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
- ^ p. 22, A Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900, Charles Singer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
- ^ a b Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
- ^ a b H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
- ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 109. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
- ^ Hart, Michael H. (1989). "The 100: A ranking of the most influential persons in history", New York: Carol Publishing group. pg. 465
- ^ Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
- ^ Willcox, William Bradford; Arnstein, Walter L. (1966). The Age of Aristocracy, 1688 to 1830. Volume III of A History of England, edited by Lacey Baldwin Smith (Sixth Edition, 1992 ed.). Lexington, MA. p. 133. ISBN 0-669-24459-7. "Adam Ferguson of Edinburgh became "the father of modern sociology.""
- ^ Auguste Comte, Britannica Student Encyclopedia. Accessed October 5, 2006.
- ^ I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0887066984.
- ^ L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", International Journal ertrtrtrtof Social Economics 25 (2-4), p. 267-282
- ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). "Chapter 12 — The founding father of modern economics: Richard Cantillon". Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. pp. 345. ISBN 094546648X. "The honour of being called the 'father of modern economics' belongs, then, not to its usual recipient, Adam Smith, but to a gallicized Irish merchant, banker, and adventurer who wrote the first treatise on economics more than four decades before the publication of the Wealth of Nations. Richard Cantillon (c. early 1680s-1734)…"
- ^ Steven Pressman. Fifty Major Economists. (1999). Routledge. ISBN 0415134811 p.20
- ^ Rothbard, p 379
- ^ Woods, p 155
- ^ Expanding Microcredit in India: A Great Opportunity for Poverty Alleviation, Grameen Dialogue.
- ^ Rothbard, p 167
- ^ Karl Marx (1863): Theories of Surplus Value, Chapter 10:
Carey (the passage to be looked up later) therefore denounces him as the father of communism. “Mr. Ricardo’s system is one of discords …its whole tends to the production of hostility among classes and nations… His hook is the true manual of the demagogue, who seeks power by means of agrarianism, war, and plunder.” (H. C. Carey, The Past, the Present, and the Future, Philadelphia, 1848, pp. 74–75.) - ^ Rothbard, p 102
- ^ Rothbard, p 100-101
- ^ Harry Markowitz, "the father of Modern Portfolio Theory," To Highlight Investment Consultants Conference
- ^ Omar, Saleh Beshara (1977), Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science, Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, ISBN 0-88297-015-1
- ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007), "Book Review—The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History", The Historian 69 (3): 601–602
- ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. Universe, p. 155.
- ^ Rosanna Gorini (2003). "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy.
- ^ MLA style: "Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408>. APA style: Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam. (2007).
|
