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{{chembox|Watchedfields=changed|verifiedrevid=322096920|Name=Carbon monoxide|ImageFileL1=Carbon monoxide 2D.svg|ImageSizeL1=100px|ImageNameL1=Structure of the carbon monoxide molecule|ImageFileR1=Carbon-monoxide-3D-vdW.png|ImageSizeR1=120px|ImageNameR1=Space-filling model of the carbon monoxide molecule|IUPACName=Carbon monooxide
Carbon monoxide
Carbon(II) oxide|OtherNames=Carbonic oxide|Section1=! style="background: #F8EABA; text-align: center;" colspan="2" | Identifiers |-

| CAS number | 630-08-0 ^Y |- | PubChem | 281 |- | EC number | 211-128-3 |-

| UN number | 1016 |-

| ChEBI | 17245 |- | RTECS number | FG3500000 |-

| SMILES

|

|- | InChI

|

|- | InChI key | UGFAIRIUMAVXCW-UHFFFAOYAT |-

| ChemSpider ID | 275 |-|Section2=! style="background: #F8EABA; text-align: center;" colspan="2" | Properties |- | Molecular formula | CO |- | Molar mass | 28.010 g mol⁻¹ |-

| Appearance | Colourless, odorless gas |-

| Density | 0.789 g mL⁻¹, liquid
1.250 g L⁻¹ at 0 °C, 1 atm
1.145 g L⁻¹ at 25 °C, 1 atm |- | Melting point | −205 °C, 68 K, -337 °F |- | Boiling point | −191.5 °C, 82 K, -313 °F |-

| Solubility in water | 0.0026 g/100 mL (20 °C) |-

| Solubility | Soluble in chloroform, acetic acid, ethyl acetate, ethanol, and ammonium hydroxide |-

| Dipole moment | 0.112 D |-|Section7=! style="background: #F8EABA; text-align: center;" colspan="2" | Hazards |- | MSDS | External MSDS |- | EU Index | 006-001-00-2 |- | EU classification | Highly flammable (F+)
Repr. Cat. 1
Very toxic (T+) |- | R-phrases | {{R61} }R12 R26 R48/23|SPhrases=S53S45|FlashPt=−191 °C|Autoignition=609 °C}} |- | NFPA 704 |

|-

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas, yet very toxic to humans and animals. It consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom, connected by a covalent double bond and a dative covalent bond. It is the simplest oxocarbon, and is an anhydride of formic acid.^{[citation needed]}

Carbon monoxide is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing compounds; it forms when there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO₂), such as when operating a stove or an internal combustion engine in an enclosed space. Carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame, producing carbon dioxide.^[1] Despite its toxicity, coal gas, which was widely used before the 1960s for domestic lighting, cooking and heating, produced carbon monoxide as a byproduct. Some processes in modern technology, such as iron smelting, still produce carbon monoxide as a byproduct.^{[citation needed]}

Contents 1 History 2 Molecular properties 3 Biological and physiological properties 3.1 Toxicity 3.2 Human physiology 3.3 Microbiology 4 Occurrence 4.1 Atmospheric presence 4.2 Urban pollution 4.3 Indoor pollution 5 Production 5.1 Laboratory preparation 5.2 Industrial production 6 Coordination chemistry 7 Organic and main group chemistry 8 Uses 8.1 Chemical industry 8.2 Meat coloring 8.3 Medicine 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[edit] History

This section requires expansion.

Carbon monoxide was used for executions by the Greek and Romans in Classical Antiquity.^[2]

[edit] Molecular properties

The bond length between the carbon atom and the oxygen atom is 112.8 pm.^[3] The effects of atomic formal charge and electronegativity result in a small bond dipole moment with its negative end on the carbon atom.^[4] The reason for this, despite oxygen's greater electronegativity, is that the highest occupied molecular orbital has an energy much closer to that of carbon's p orbitals, meaning that greater electron density is found near the carbon atom. In addition, carbon's lower electronegativity creates a much more diffuse electron cloud, enhancing the polarizability. This is also the reason why almost all chemistry involving carbon monoxide occurs through the carbon atom, and not the oxygen.^{[citation needed]}

The bond length of CO is consistent with a partial triple bond, and the molecule can be represented by three resonance structures:

In this model, the leftmost structure contributes the most. Carbon monoxide resembles molecular nitrogen, and it has nearly the same molecular mass. Their physical properties (boiling point, melting point, etc.) are very similar.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Biological and physiological properties

[edit] Toxicity

Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries.^[5] Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless, but extremely toxic. It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which is ineffective for delivering oxygen to bodily tissues. This condition is known as anoxemia). Concentrations as low as 667 ppm may cause up to 50% of the body's hemoglobin to convert to carboxyhemoglobin.^{[citation needed]} In the United States, the OSHA limits long-term workplace exposure levels above 50 ppm.^[6]

The most common symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning may resemble other types of poisonings and infections (such as the flu), including headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, lethargy and a feeling of weakness. Infants may be irritable and feed poorly. Neurological signs include confusion, disorientation, visual disturbance, syncope and seizures.^[2]

Some descriptions of carbon monoxide poisoning include retinal hemorrhages, and an abnormal cherry-red blood hue.^[7]. In most clinical diagnoses these signs are seldom seen.^[2]

Carbon monoxide binds to other molecules such as myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase. Exposures to carbon monoxide may cause significant damage to the heart and central nervous system, especially to the globus pallidus,^[8] often with long-term sequelae. Carbon monoxide may have severe adverse effects on the fetus of a pregnant woman.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Human physiology

Carbon monoxide is produced naturally by the human body. This carbon monoxide may have positive physiological roles in the body, such as a neurotransmitter or a blood vessel relaxant.^[9] Because of carbon monoxide's role in the body, abnormalities in its metabolism have been linked to a variety of diseases, including neurodegenerations, hypertension, heart failure, and inflammation.^[9]

[edit] Microbiology

Carbon monoxide is a nutrient for methanogenic bacteria,^[10] a building block for acetylcoenzyme A. This the theme for the emerging field of bioorganometallic chemistry. In bacteria, carbon monoxide is produced via the reduction of carbon dioxide by the enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, an Fe-Ni-S-containing protein.^[11]

CooA is a carbon monoxide sensor protein.^[12] The scope of its biological role is still unknown; it may be part of a signaling pathway in bacteria and archaea. Its occurrence in mammals is not established.

[edit] Occurrence

Carbon monoxide occurs in various natural and artificial environments. Typical concentrations in parts per million are as follows:

Concentration	Source
0.1 ppm	Natural atmosphere level (MOPITT)[13]
0.5 to 5 ppm	Average level in homes[14]
5 to 15 ppm	Near properly adjusted gas stoves in homes[15]
100 to 200 ppm	Exhaust from automobiles in the Mexico City central area[16]
5,000 ppm	Exhaust from a home wood fire[17]
7,000 ppm	Undiluted warm car exhaust without a catalytic converter[15]

[edit] Atmospheric presence

Carbon monoxide is present in small amounts in the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of volcanic activity but also from natural and man-made fires (such as forest and bushfires, burning of crop residues, and sugarcane fire-cleaning).^{[citation needed]} The burning of fossil fuels also contributes to carbon monoxide production. Carbon monoxide occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high pressures in the Earth's mantle.^{[citation needed]} Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas.

Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the hydroxyl radical, OH^.) that would otherwise destroy them.^{[citation needed]} Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide concentrations are both short-lived in the atmosphere and spatially variable.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Urban pollution

Carbon monoxide is a major atmospheric pollutant in some urban areas, chiefly from the exhaust of internal combustion engines (including vehicles, portable and back-up generators, lawn mowers, power washers, etc.), but also from improper burning of various other fuels (including wood, coal, charcoal, oil, paraffin, propane, natural gas, and trash). Along with aldehydes, it reacts photochemically to produce peroxy radicals. Peroxy radicals react with nitrogen oxide to increase the ratio of NO₂ to NO, which reduces the quantity of NO that is available to react with ozone.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Indoor pollution

In closed environments the concentration of carbon monoxide can easily rise to lethal levels. On average, 170 people in the United States die every year from carbon monoxide produced by non-automotive consumer products.^{[citation needed]} These products include malfunctioning fuel-burning appliances such as furnaces, ranges, water heaters and room heaters; engine-powered equipment such as portable generators; fireplaces; and charcoal that is burned in homes and other enclosed areas. The American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC) reported 15,769 cases of carbon monoxide poisoning resulting in 39 deaths in 2007.^[18] In 2005, the CPSC reported 94 generator-related carbon monoxide poisoning deaths.^{[citation needed]} Forty-seven of these deaths were known to have occurred during power outages due to severe weather, including Hurricane Katrina.^{[citation needed]} Still others die from carbon monoxide produced by non-consumer products, such as cars left running in attached garages. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that several thousand people go to hospital emergency rooms every year to be treated for carbon monoxide poisoning.^{[citation needed]}

Carbon monoxide is also a constituent of tobacco smoke.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Production

Many methods have been developed for carbon monoxide's production.^[19]

[edit] Laboratory preparation

Carbon monoxide is conveniently produced in the laboratory by the dehydration of formic acid, for example with sulfuric acid. Another method is heating an intimate mixture of powdered zinc metal and calcium carbonate, which releases CO and leaves behind zinc oxide and calcium oxide:

Zn + CaCO₃ → ZnO + CaO + CO

[edit] Industrial production

A major industrial source of CO is producer gas, a mixture containing mostly carbon monoxide and nitrogen, formed by combustion of carbon in air at high temperature when there is an excess of carbon. In an oven, air is passed through a bed of coke. The initially produced CO₂ equilibrates with the remaining hot carbon to give CO. The reaction of O₂ with carbon to give CO is described as the Boudouard equilibrium. Above 800 °C, CO is the predominant product:

O₂ + 2 C → 2 CO (ΔH = −221 kJ/mol)

Another source is "water gas", a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide produced via the endothermic reaction of steam and carbon:

H₂O + C → H₂ + CO (ΔH = +131 kJ/mol)

Other similar "synthesis gases" can be obtained from natural gas and other fuels.

Carbon monoxide is also is a byproduct of the reduction of metal oxide ores with carbon, shown in a simplified form as follows:

MO + C → M + CO

Since CO is a gas, the reduction process can be driven by heating, exploiting the positive (favorable) entropy of reaction. The Ellingham diagram shows that CO formation is favored over CO₂ in high temperatures.

[edit] Coordination chemistry

Most metals form coordination complexes containing covalently attached carbon monoxide. Only those in lower oxidation states will complex with carbon monoxide ligands. This is because there must be sufficient electron density to facilitate back donation from the metal d_xz-orbital, to the π* molecular orbital from CO. The lone pair on the carbon atom in CO, also donates electron density to the d_x²−y² on the metal to form a sigma bond. In nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)₄ forms by the direct combination of carbon monoxide and nickel metal at room temperature. For this reason, nickel in any tubing or part must not come into prolonged contact with carbon monoxide (corrosion). Nickel carbonyl decomposes readily back to Ni and CO upon contact with hot surfaces, and this method was once used for the industrial purification of nickel in the Mond process.^[20]

In nickel carbonyl and other carbonyls, the electron pair on the carbon interacts with the metal; the carbon monoxide donates the electron pair to the metal. In these situations, carbon monoxide is called the carbonyl ligand. One of the most important metal carbonyls is iron pentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)₅:

Many metal-CO complexes are prepared by decarbonylation of organic solvents, not from CO. For instance, iridium trichloride and triphenylphosphine react in boiling 2-methoxyethanol or DMF) to afford IrCl(CO)(PPh₃)₂.

[edit] Organic and main group chemistry

In the presence of strong acids and water, carbon monoxide reacts with olefins to form carboxylic acids in a process known as the Koch-Haaf reaction.^[21] In the Gattermann-Koch reaction, arenes are converted to benzaldehyde derivatives in the presence of AlCl₃ and HCl.^[22] Organolithium compounds (e.g. butyl lithium) react with carbon monoxide, but these reactions have little scientific use.

Although CO reacts with carbocations and carbanions, it is relatively nonreactive toward organic compounds without the intervention of metal catalysts.^[23]

With main group reagents, CO undergoes several noteworthy reactions. Chlorination of CO is the industrial route to the important compound phosgene. With borane CO forms an adduct, H₃BCO, which is isoelectronic with the acylium cation [H₃CCO]⁺. CO reacts with sodium to give products resulting from C-C coupling such as Na₂C₂O₂ (sodium acetylenediolate), and potassium to give K₂C₂O₂ (potassium acetylenediolate) and K₂C₆O₆ (potassium rhodizonate).

The compounds cyclohexanehexone or triquinoyl (C₆O₆) and cyclopentanepentone or leuconic acid (C₅O₅), which so far have been obtained only in trace amounts, can be regarded as polymers of carbon monoxide.^{[citation needed]}

At pressures of over 5 gigapascals, carbon monoxide disproportionates into carbon dioxide (CO₂) and is a solid polymer of carbon and oxygen, in 3:2 atomic ratio.^[24][25]

[edit] Uses

[edit] Chemical industry

Carbon monoxide is an industrial gas that has many applications in bulk chemicals manufacturing.^[26]

Large quantities of aldehydes are produced by the hydroformylation reaction of alkenes, carbon monoxide, and H₂. Hydroformylation is coupled to the Shell Higher Olefin Process to give precursors to detergents. Methanol is produced by the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide. In a related reaction, the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide is coupled to C-C bond formation, as in the Fischer-Tropsch process where carbon monoxide is hydrogenated to liquid hydrocarbon fuels. This technology allows coal or biomass to be converted to diesel.

In the Monsanto process, carbon monoxide and methanol react in the presence of a homogeneous rhodium catalyst and hydroiodic acid to give acetic acid. This process is responsible for most of the industrial production of acetic acid.

An industrial scale use for pure carbon monoxide is purifying nickel in the Mond process.

[edit] Meat coloring

Carbon monoxide is used in modified atmosphere packaging systems in the US, mainly with fresh meat products such as beef, pork, and fish to keep them looking fresh. The carbon monoxide combines with myoglobin to form carboxymyoglobin, a bright cherry red pigment. Carboxymyoglobin is more stable than the oxygenated form of myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, which can become oxidized to the brown pigment, metmyoglobin. This stable red color can persist much longer than in normally packaged meat.^[27] Typical levels of carbon monoxide used in the facilities that use this process are between 0.4% to 0.5%.

The technology was first given "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) status by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2002 for use as a secondary packaging system, and does not require labeling. In 2004 the FDA approved CO as primary packaging method, declaring that CO does not mask spoilage odor.^[28] Despite this ruling, the process remains controversial for fears that it masks spoilage.^[29] In 2007 a bill^[30] was introduced to the United States House of Representatives to label modified atmosphere carbon monoxide packaging as a color additive, but the bill died in subcommittee. The process is banned in many other countries, including Canada, Japan, Singapore and the European Union.^[31][32][33]

[edit] Medicine

Carbon monoxide is also currently being studied in several research laboratories throughout the world for its anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective properties that can be used therapeutically to prevent the development of a series of pathologic conditions such as ischemia reperfusion injury, transplant rejection, atherosclerosis, sepsis, severe malaria or autoimmunity. Clinical tests on humans have been performed, however, results have not yet been released.^[34].

[edit] See also

• Carbon monoxide (data page)
• Carbon monoxide poisoning
• Boudouard reaction
• Criteria air contaminants
• Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society Hyperbaric Treatment for CO Poisoning
• Carbon monoxide detector
• Rubicon Foundation research articles on CO Poisoning
• Molecular cloud

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• International Chemical Safety Card 0023
• National Pollutant Inventory - Carbon Monoxide
• NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
• CID 281 from PubChem
• External MSDS data sheet
• Carbon Monoxide Detector Placement
• Carbon Monoxide Kills Awareness Campaign Site
• Carbon Monoxide Purification Process
• Carbon Monoxide Hazards with Backpacking Stoves
• USFDA IMPORT BULLETIN 16B-95, May 1999
• FDA Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000083
• Microscale Gas Chemistry Experiments with Carbon Monoxide
• Instant insight outlining the physiology of carbon monoxide from the Royal Society of Chemistry
• Pictures of CO Poisoning Radiology and Pathology Images from MedPix.

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