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Mechanism of cAMP-dependent signaling. In this figure, the neurotransmitter epinephrine (adrenaline) and its receptor (pink) is used as an example. The activated receptor releases the G_s alpha protein (tan) from the beta amd gamma subunits (blue and green) in the heterotrimeric G-protein complex. The activated G_s alpha protein in turn activates adenylyl cyclase (purple) that converts ATP into the second messenger cAMP.^[1]

In the field of molecular biology, the cAMP-dependent pathway, also known as the adenylyl cyclase pathway, is a G protein-coupled receptor triggered signaling cascade used in cell communication.^[2]

[edit] Mechanism

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of integral membrane proteins that respond to a variety of extracellular stimuli. Each GPCR binds to and is activated by a specific ligand stimulus that ranges in size from small molecule catecholamines, lipids, or neurotransmitters to large protein hormones. When a GPCR is activated by its extracellular ligand, a conformational change is induced in the receptor that is transmitted to an attached intracellular heterotrimeric G protein complex. The G_s alpha subunit of the stimulated G protein complex exchanges GDP for GTP and is released from the complex.

In a cAMP-dependent pathway, the activated G_s alpha subunit binds to and activates an enzyme called adenylyl cyclase, which, in turn, catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).^[3] Increases in concentration of the second messenger cAMP may lead to the activation of

• cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels,^[4]
• exchange proteins activated by cAMP (EPAC)^[5] such as RAPGEF3, or
• an enzyme called protein kinase A (PKA).^[6]

The PKA enzyme is also known as cAMP-dependent enzyme because it gets activated only if cAMP is present. Once PKA is activated, it phosphorylates a number of other proteins including:^[7]

• enzymes that convert glycogen into glucose
• enzymes that promote muscle contraction in the heart leading to an increase in heart rate
• transcription factors, which regulate gene expression

Specificity of signaling between a GPCR and its ultimate molecular target through a cAMP-dependent pathway may be achieved through formation of a multiprotein complex that includes the GPCR, adenylyl cyclase, and the effector protein.^[8]

[edit] Importance

In humans, cAMP works by activating protein kinase A (PKA, cAMP-dependent protein kinase), and, thus, further effects mainly depend on cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which vary based on the type of cell.

cAMP-dependent pathway is necessary for many living organisms and life processes. Many different cell responses are mediated by cAMP. These include increase in heart rate, cortisol secretion, and breakdown of glycogen and fat.

This pathway can activate enzymes and regulate gene expression. The activation of preexisting enzymes is a much faster process, whereas regulation of gene expression is much longer and can take up to hours. The cAMP pathway is studied through loss of function (inhibition) and gain of function (increase) of cAMP.

If cAMP-dependent pathway is not controlled, it can ultimately lead to hyper-proliferation, which may contribute to the development and/or progression of cancer.

[edit] Activation

Activated GPCRs cause a conformational change in the attached G protein complex, which results in the G_s alpha subunit's exchanging GTP for GDP and separation from the beta and gamma subunits. The G_s alpha subunit, in turn, activates adenylyl cyclase, which quickly converts ATP into cAMP. This leads to the activation of the cAMP-dependent pathway. This pathway can also be activated downstream by directly activating adenylyl cyclase or PKA.

Molecules that activate cAMP pathway include:

• cholera toxin - increase cAMP levels
• forskolin - a diterpine natural product that activates adenylyl cyclase.
• caffeine and theophylline inhibit cAMP phosphodiesterase, which leads to an activation of G proteins that result in the activation of the cAMP pathway
• bucladesine (dibutyryl cAMP, db cAMP) - also a phosphodiesterase inhibitor

[edit] Deactivation

The G_s alpha subunit slowly catalyzes the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, which in turn deactivates the G_s protein, shutting off the cAMP pathway. The pathway may also be deactivated downstream by directly inhibiting adenylyl cyclase or dephosphorylating the proteins phosphorylated by PKA.

Molecules that inhibit cAMP pathway include:

• cAMP phosphodiesterase dephospohorylates cAMP into AMP, reducing the cAMP levels.
• G_i protein, which is a G protein that inhibits adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP levels.
• pertussis toxin, which decreases cAMP levels.

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Michael Shih and Glenn Croston. "Activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase, PKA". BioCarta - Charting Pathways of Life. BioCarta, Inc. http://www.biocarta.com/pathfiles/h_GSPATHWAY.asp. Retrieved 2008-05-25.