The anticonvulsants are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers. The goal of an anticonvulsant is to suppress the rapid and excessive firing of neurons that start a seizure. Because of this, anticonvulsants also have proven effective in treating many kinds of dysfunctional anxiety. Failing this, an effective anticonvulsant would prevent the spread of the seizure within the brain and offer protection against possible excitotoxic effects that may result in brain damage. However, anticonvulsants themselves have been linked to lowered IQ in children.^[1] Anticonvulsants are often called antiepileptic drugs (abbreviated "AEDs") or antiseizure drugs (abbreviated "ASDs").

The major molecular targets of marketed anticonvulsant drugs are 1) voltage-gated sodium channels; 2) components of the GABA system, including GABA_A receptors, the GAT-1 GABA transporter, and GABA transaminase; and 3) voltage-gated calcium channels.^[2]

Some anticonvulsants have shown antiepileptogenic effects in animal models of epilepsy. That is, they either prevent the expected development of epilepsy or can halt or reverse the progression of epilepsy. However, no drug has been shown to prevent epileptogenesis (the development of epilepsy after an injury such as a head injury) in human trials.^[3]

Contents 1 Approval 2 Drugs 2.1 Aldehydes 2.2 Aromatic allylic alcohols 2.3 Barbiturates 2.4 Benzodiazepines 2.5 Bromides 2.6 Carbamates 2.7 Carboxamides 2.8 Fatty acids 2.9 Fructose derivatives 2.10 Gaba analogs 2.11 Hydantoins 2.12 Oxazolidinediones 2.13 Propionates 2.14 Pyrimidinediones 2.15 Pyrrolidines 2.16 Succinimides 2.17 Sulfonamides 2.18 Triazines 2.19 Ureas 2.20 Valproylamides (amide derivatives of valproate) 3 Diet 4 Devices 5 Marketing approval history 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Approval

The usual method of achieving approval for a drug is to show it is effective when compared against placebo, or that it is more effective than an existing drug. In monotherapy (where only one drug is taken) it is considered unethical by most to conduct a trial with placebo on a new drug of uncertain efficacy. This is because untreated epilepsy leaves the patient at significant risk of death. Therefore, almost all new epilepsy drugs are initially approved only as adjunctive (add-on) therapies. Patients whose epilepsy is currently uncontrolled by their medication (i.e., it is refractory to treatment) are selected to see if supplementing the medication with the new drug leads to an improvement in seizure control. Any reduction in the frequency of seizures is compared against a placebo.^[3]

Once there is confidence that a drug is likely to be effective in monotherapy, trials are conducted where the drug is compared to an existing standard. For partial-onset seizures, this is typically carbamazepine. Despite the launch of over ten drugs since 1990, no new drug has been shown to be more effective than the older set, which includes carbamazepine, valproate and phenytoin. The lack of superiority over existing treatment, combined with lacking placebo-controlled trials, means that few modern drugs have earned FDA approval as initial monotherapy. In contrast, Europe only requires equivalence to existing treatments, and has approved many more. Despite their lack of FDA approval, the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society still recommend a number of these new drugs as initial monotherapy.^[3]

[edit] Drugs

In the following list, the dates in parentheses are the earliest approved use of the drug.

[edit] Aldehydes

Main article: Aldehydes

• Paraldehyde (1882). One of the earliest anticonvulsants. Still used to treat status epilepticus, particularly where there are no resuscitation facilities.

[edit] Aromatic allylic alcohols

• Stiripentol (2001 - limited availability). Indicated for the treatment of severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy (SMEI).

[edit] Barbiturates

Main article: Barbiturates

Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. The following are classified as anticonvulsants:

• Phenobarbital (1912). See also the related drug primidone.
• Methylphenobarbital (1935). Known as mephobarbital in the US. No longer marketed in the UK
• Metharbital (1952). No longer marketed in the UK or US.
• Barbexaclone (1982). Only available in some European countries.

Phenobarbital was the main anticonvulsant from 1912 till the development of phenytoin in 1938. Today, phenobarbital is rarely used to treat epilepsy in new patients since there are other effective drugs that are less sedating. Phenobarbital sodium injection can be used to stop acute convulsions or status epilepticus, but a benzodiazepine such as lorazepam, diazepam or midazolam is usually tried first. Other barbiturates only have an anticonvulsant effect at anaesthetic doses.

[edit] Benzodiazepines

Main article: Benzodiazepines

The benzodiazepines are a class of drugs with hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsive, amnestic and muscle relaxant properties. Benzodiazepines act as a central nervous system depressant. The relative strength of each of these properties in any given benzodiazepine varies greatly and influences the indications for which it is prescribed. Long-term use can be problematic due to the development of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects and dependency.^[4][5][6][7] Of the many drugs in this class, only a few are used to treat epilepsy:

• Clobazam (1979). Notably used on a short-term basis around menstruation in women with catamenial epilepsy.
• Clonazepam (1974).
• Clorazepate (1972).

The following benzodiazepines are used to treat status epilepticus:

• Diazepam (1963). Can be given rectally by trained care-givers.
• Midazolam (N/A). Increasingly being used as an alternative to diazepam. This water-soluble drug is squirted into the side of the mouth but not swallowed. It is rapidly absorbed by the buccal mucosa.
• Lorazepam (1972). Given by injection in hospital.

Nitrazepam, temazepam, and especially nimetazepam are powerful anticonvulsant agents, however their use is rare due to an increased incidence of side effects and strong sedative and motor-impairing properties.

[edit] Bromides

Main article: Bromides

• Potassium bromide (1857). The earliest effective treatment for epilepsy. There would not be a better drug for epilepsy until phenobarbital in 1912. It is still used as an anticonvulsant for dogs and cats.

[edit] Carbamates

Main article: Carbamates

• Felbamate (1993). This effective anticonvulsant has had its usage severely restricted due to rare but life-threatening side effects.

[edit] Carboxamides

Main article: Carboxamides

The following are carboxamides:

• Carbamazepine (1963). A popular anticonvulsant that is available in generic formulations.
• Oxcarbazepine (1990). A derivative of carbamazepine that has similar efficacy but is better tolerated and is also available generically.
• Eslicarbazepine acetate (2009)

[edit] Fatty acids

Main article: Fatty acids

The following are fatty-acids:

• The valproates — valproic acid, sodium valproate, and divalproex sodium (1967).
• Vigabatrin (1989).
• Progabide
• Tiagabine (1996).

Vigabatrin and progabide are also analogs of GABA.

[edit] Fructose derivatives

• Topiramate (1995).

[edit] Gaba analogs

• Gabapentin (1993).
• Pregabalin (2004).

[edit] Hydantoins

Main article: Hydantoins

The following are hydantoins:

• Ethotoin (1957).
• Phenytoin (1938).
• Mephenytoin
• Fosphenytoin (1996).

[edit] Oxazolidinediones

Main article: Oxazolidinediones

The following are oxazolidinediones:

• Paramethadione
• Trimethadione (1946).
• Ethadione

[edit] Propionates

Main article: Propionates

• Beclamide

[edit] Pyrimidinediones

Main article: Pyrimidinediones

• Primidone (1952).

[edit] Pyrrolidines

Main article: Pyrrolidines

• Brivaracetam
• Levetiracetam (1999).
• Seletracetam

[edit] Succinimides

Main article: Succinimides

The following are succinimides:

• Ethosuximide (1955).
• Phensuximide
• Mesuximide

[edit] Sulfonamides

Main article: Sulfonamides

• Acetazolamide (1953).
• Sultiame
• Methazolamide
• Zonisamide (2000).

[edit] Triazines

Main article: Triazines

• Lamotrigine (1990).

[edit] Ureas

Main article: Ureas

• Pheneturide
• Phenacemide

[edit] Valproylamides (amide derivatives of valproate)

Main article: Amides

• Valpromide
• Valnoctamide

[edit] Diet

The ketogenic diet is a strict medically supervised diet that has an anticonvulsant effect. It is typically used in children with refractory epilepsy.

[edit] Devices

The vagus nerve stimulator (VNS) is a device that sends electric impulses to the left vagus nerve in the neck via a lead implanted under the skin. It was FDA approved in 1997 as an adjunctive therapy for partial-onset epilepsy.

[edit] Marketing approval history

The following table lists anticonvulsant drugs together with the date their marketing was approved in the US, UK and France. Data for the UK and France are incomplete. In recent years, the European Medicines Agency has approved drugs throughout the European Union. Some of the drugs are no longer marketed.

Drug	Brand	US	UK	France
acetazolamide	Diamox	1953-07-2727 July 1953[8]	1988[9]
carbamazepine	Tegretol	1974-07-1515 July 1974[10][11]	1965[9]	1963[12]
clobazam	Frisium		1979[9]
clonazepam	Klonopin/Rivotril	1975-06-044 June 1975[13]	1974[9]
diazepam	Valium	1963-11-1515 November 1963[14]
divalproex sodium	Depakote	1983-03-1010 March 1983[15]
ethosuximide	Zarontin	1960-11-022 November 1960[16]	1955[9]	1962[12]
ethotoin	Peganone	1957-04-2222 April 1957[17]
felbamate	Felbatol	1993-07-2929 July 1993[18]
fosphenytoin	Cerebyx	1996-08-055 August 1996[19]
gabapentin	Neurontin	1993-12-3030 December 1993[20]	1993-05May 1993[9][12]	1994-10October 1994[12]
lamotrigine	Lamictal	1994-12-2727 December 1994[21]	1991-10October 1991[9][12]	1995-05May 1995[12]
levetiracetam	Keppra	1999-11-3030 November 1999[22]	2000-09-2929 September 2000[9][23]	2000-09-2929 September 2000[23]
mephenytoin	Mesantoin	1946-10-2323 October 1946[24]
metharbital	Gemonil	1952[25][26]
methsuximide	Celontin	1957-02-088 February 1957[27]
methazolamide	Neptazane	1959-01-2626 January 1959[28]
oxcarbazepine	Trileptal	2000-01-1414 January 2000[29]	2000[9]
phenobarbital			1912[9]	1920[12]
phenytoin	Dilantin/Epanutin	1938[12][30]	1938[9]	1941[12]
phensuximide	Milontin	1953[31][32]
pregabalin	Lyrica	2004-12-3030 December 2004[33]	2004-07-066 July 2004[9][34]	2004-07-066 July 2004[34]
primidone	Mysoline	1954-03-088 March 1954[35]	1952[9]	1953[12]
sodium valproate	Epilim		1977-12December 1977[12]	1967-06June 1967[12]
stiripentol	Diacomit		2001-12-055 December 2001[36]	2001-12-055 December 2001[36]
tiagabine	Gabitril	1997-09-3030 September 1997[37]	1998[9]	1997-11November 1997[12]
topiramate	Topamax	1996-12-2424 December 1996[38]	1995[9]
trimethadione	Tridione	1946-01-2525 January 1946[39]
valproic acid	Depakene/Convulex	1978-02-2828 February 1978[40]	1993[9]
vigabatrin	Sabril	2009-08-2121 August 2009[41]	1989[9]
zonisamide	Zonegran	2000-03-2727 March 2000[42]	2005-03-1010 March 2005[9][43]	2005-03-1010 March 2005[43]

[edit] See also

• ATC code N03

[edit] References

• Drug Reference for FDA Approved Epilepsy Drugs
• Epilepsy Action: UK Anti-Epileptic Drugs List

[edit] External links

• eMedicine: Antiepileptic Drugs: an overview
• NINDS: Anticonvulsant Screening Program
• Use of Anticonvulsants in Pharmacotherapy of Bronchial Asthma
• MDNG: Anticonvulsants and Bone Health

v • d • e Anticonvulsants (N03) GABAA receptor agonist Barbiturates Barbexaclone · Metharbital · Methylphenobarbital · Pentobarbital · Phenobarbital# · Primidone Benzodiazepines Clobazam · Clonazepam · Clorazepate · Diazepam# · Flutoprazepam · Lorazepam · Midazolam · Nimetazepam · Nitrazepam · Temazepam Other GABA agents Aromatic allylic alcohols Stiripentol Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor Sulfa drugs Acetazolamide · Ethoxzolamide · Sultiame · Zonisamide Channel blockers Primarily sodium Hydantoins Ethotoin · Fosphenytoin · Mephenytoin · Phenytoin# Carboxamides Carbamazepine# · Eslicarbazepine acetate · Oxcarbazepine · Rufinamide Primarily calcium Succinimides Ethosuximide# · Mesuximide · Phensuximide Unknown/ungrouped Phenyltriazines Lamotrigine Oxazolidinediones Ethadione · Paramethadione · Trimethadione Ureas Phenacemide · Pheneturide Monosaccharides Topiramate Indirect GABA agents Carboxylic acids/ Fatty acid derivatives GABA transaminase inhibitor: Valproic acid# (Sodium valproate & Valproate semisodium) · Valpromide · Valnoctamide GABA reuptake inhibitor: Tiagabine GABA analogs Gabapentin · Pregabalin · Progabide · Vigabatrin Unknown/multiple/ unsorted Carbamates Emylcamate · Felbamate · Meprobamate · Carisbamate Pyrrolidines Brivaracetam · Levetiracetam · Nefiracetam · Seletracetam Propionates Beclamide · Lacosamide Aldehydes Paraldehyde Bromides Potassium bromide · Sodium bromide #WHO-EM. ‡Withdrawn from market. CLINICAL TRIALS: †Phase III. §Never to phase III

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