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Anarchism is a political philosophy with many heterogeneous and diverse schools of thought, united by a common opposition to compulsory government. Anarchist schools of thought are characterised by "the belief that government is both harmful and unnecessary", but may differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.[1] The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises negative liberty, i.e. opposition to state or social control over the individual, while those in the collectivist wing emphasise positive liberty to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".[2] Another distinction is that the social wing advocates market abolitionism and common ownership as a means to eliminate unequal economic power, and individualist anarchism is supportive of means of production being held privately, and in the case of the most prevalent strain of anarcho-individualism, advocates that goods and services be distributed through markets.[3] Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber has noted that while schools of Marxism always have founders (e.g. Leninism, Maoism, Lacanianism), schools of anarchism "almost invariably emerge from some kind of organizational principle or form of practice", citing anarcho-syndicalism, individualist anarchism and platformism as examples.[4]
[edit] Philosophical anarchismMain article: philosophical anarchism  William Godwin, in founding philosophical anarchism, developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought.[5] Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work."[6] Philosophical anarchism contends that the State lacks moral legitimacy; that there is no individual obligation or duty to obey the State, and conversely, that the State has no right to command individuals, but it does not advocate revolution to eliminate the state. According to The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought, philosophical anarchism "is a component especially of individualist anarchism."[7] Philosophical anarchists may accept the existence of a minimal state as an unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.[8] As conceived by Godwin, it requires individuals to act in accordance with their own judgements and to allow every other individual the same liberty; conceived egoistically as by Max Stirner, it implies that "the unique one" who truly "owns himself" recognizes no duties to others; within the limit of his might, he does what is right for him.[7] Godwin opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil"[9] that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.[5] Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated.[10] Godwin felt discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable. Rather than throwing bombs or taking up arms to bring down the state, philosophical anarchists "have worked for a gradual change to free the individual from what they thought were the oppressive laws and social constraints of the modern state and allow all individuals to become self-determining and value-creating."[11] They may oppose the immediate elimination of the state by violent means out of concern that it would be left unsecured against the establishment of a more harmful and oppressive state. This is especially true among those anarchists who consider violence and the state as synonymous, or who consider it counterproductive where public reaction to violence results in increased "law enforcement" efforts. [edit] MutualismMain article: Mutualism (economic theory)  Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labor movements, then took an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the US.[12] This influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B. Greene. Josiah Warren proposed similar ideas in 1833[13] after participating in a failed Owenite experiment.[14] In the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana,[15] and William B. Greene introduced Proudhon's works to the US. Greene adapted Proudhon's mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin R. Tucker.[16] Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. Many mutualists believe a market without government intervention drives prices down to labor-costs, eliminating profit, rent, and interest according to the labor theory of value. Firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms, raising wages.[17][18] Some see mutualism as between individualist and collectivist anarchism;[19] in What Is Property?, Proudhon develops a concept of "liberty", equivalent to "anarchy", which is the dialectical "synthesis of communism and property."[20] Greene, influenced by Pierre Leroux, sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies – communism, capitalism and socialism.[21] Later individualist anarchists used the term mutualism but retained little emphasis on synthesis, while social anarchists such as the authors of An Anarchist FAQ claim mutualism as a subset of their philosophical tradition.[22] [edit] Individualist anarchismMain article: Individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism is composed of "several traditions"[23] which hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective body or public authority."[24] It has had several major influences: Thomas Jefferson, Pierre Proudhon's mutualism, and the natural rights theory of classical liberalism, among others. Individualist anarchism has been particularly strong in the USA from the time of Warren through to Murray Rothbard (who called his philosophy "anarcho-capitalism"),[25][26] Kevin Carson,[27] and others, including Charles Johnson, David D. Friedman, Stephan Kinsella, Roderick T. Long, James J. Martin, Wendy McElroy, Gary Chartier, Joe Peacott, Sharon Presley, and Crispin Sartwell. In the mid 19th century in the US, Henry David Thoreau foresaw "the inevitability of self-government accompanied by atrophy of the State", arguing the state's only power was what individuals cede to it,[28] but offered no practical program for social change.  [edit] EgoismMain article: Egoist anarchism Egoism is an ideal of anarchism that suggests that all humans’ main goal is self- benefit. Whether it be pleasure, wealth, or health, humans strive to make themselves greater.” Egoism has two variants, descriptive or normative. The descriptive (or positive) variant conceives egoism as a factual description of human affairs. That is, people are motivated by their own interests and desires, and they cannot be described otherwise. The normative variant proposes that people should be so motivated, regardless of what presently motivates their behavior. Altruism is the opposite of egoism. The term “egoism” derives from “ego,” the Latin term for the English word “I”. “Egoism” should be distinguished from “egotism,” which means a psychological overvaluation of one’s own importance, or of one’s own activities.”(http3) There are two varieties of egoism, psychological and ethical egoism. “Psychological Egoism-- This is the claim that humans by nature are motivated only by self-interest. Any act, no matter how altruistic it might seem, is actually motivated by some selfish desire of the agent (e.g., desire for reward, avoidance of guilt, personal happiness). This is a descriptive claim about human nature. Since the claim is universal--all acts are motivated by self interest--it could be proven false by a single counterexample.”(htt1) “Ethical Egoism-- This is the claim that individuals should always to act in their own best interest. It is a normative claim. If ethical egoism is true, that appears to imply that psychological egoism is false: there would be no point to saying that we ought to do what we must do by nature.”(htt1) A recent book about egoism describes the philosophy and method of egoists. “Stirner: The Ego and its Own is a book Own constitutes an enduring critique of liberalism and socialism from the perspective of an extreme eccentric individualism. Stirner has latterly been portrayed variously as a precursor of Nietzsche, a forerunner of existentialism, an individualist anarchist, and as manifestly insane.” egoism was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, Max Stirner.[29] Stirner's The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.[29] According to Stirner's conception, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,[30] without regard for God, state, or moral rules.[31] To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality" – he supported a concept of property held by force of might rather than moral right.[32] By "property" he is not referring only to things but to other people as well.[33] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw "associations of egoists" where respect for ruthlessness drew people together.[34] Even murder is permissible "if it is right for me."[35] Stirner saw the state as illegitimate but did not see individuals as having a duty to eliminate it nor does he recommend that they try to eliminate it; rather, he advocates that they disregard the state when it conflicts with their autonomous choices and go along with it when doing so is conducive to their interests.[36] However, while he thought there was no duty to eliminate state, he does think it will eventually collapse as a result of the spread of egoism.[37] "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay. Individualist anarchism inspired by Stirner attracted a small following of European bohemian artists and intellectuals. Stirner's philosophy has been seen as a precedent of existentialism with other thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche, or even Sören Kierkegaard. Russian anarchists like Lev Chernyi were also attracted by Stirner ideas, as well as a few lone wolves who found self-expression in crime and violence.[38] They rejected organizing, believing that only unorganized individuals were safe from coercion and domination, and that this kept them true to the ideals of anarchism.[39] This type of individualist anarchism inspired anarcho-feminist Emma Goldman.[38] Though Stirner's egoism is individualist, it has also influenced some anarcho-communists. "For Ourselves Council for Generalized Self-Management" discusses Stirner and speaks of a "communist egoism," which is said to be a "synthesis of individualism and collectivism," and says that "greed in its fullest sense is the only possible basis of communist society.[40] [edit] The Boston anarchistsA "less radical"[41] form of individualist anarchism was advocated by the "Boston anarchists," who were individualists supporting private property and a free market.[42] For them, liberty and property should be protected by private contractors funded in a free market, not by the state.[43] Like Marxists and social anarchists, they believed that state monopoly capitalism (identified as a state-sponsored monopoly[44]) didn't fully reward labor. But unlike social anarchists, individualists endorsed exchange of labor for wages.[45] The nineteenth century individualists argued state imposed economic regulation put the means of production in few hands,[46] and that by having a free-market private ownership would be dispersed. Individualists like Tucker wanted more self-employment, but didn't want to prevent people from "carrying on business for themselves or from assuming relations between themselves as employer and employee if they prefer."[47] Individualists disagreed on various issues. Lysander Spooner supported intellectual property rights[48] and permitted absentee land ownership.[49] Steven T. Byington also opposed Benjamin Tucker's occupancy and use requirements.[50] While all supported private property and free markets (causing some to consider them pro-capitalist), some, like Tucker, called themselves socialist. (At the time, "the term socialism was a broad concept," with Tucker understanding "socialism" to refer to many ideas aimed to solve "the labor problem" by radically changing the economy.[51]) They also called themselves anti-capitalist, defining "capitalism" as state-maintained monopolization of capital.[44] A major cleft occurred later in the 19th century when Tucker, and some others, abandoned natural rights and converted to an "egoism" modeled upon Stirnerism, claiming the only right naturally existing is the "right of might" and that other rights only come into existence if people decide to limit their might over each other.[52] They did not have a problem that "one man employ another" or that "he direct him," in his labor but demanded that "all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that monopolies arising from special privileges created by law be abolished."[53] By the beginning of the twentieth century, individualist anarchism in America was declining – "the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed", in the words of Paul Avrich.[54] It was later revived with modifications by Murray Rothbard and the anarcho-capitalists in the mid-twentieth century, forming part of the broader movement known as libertarianism.[41][55] Rothbard said "individualist anarchists could easily incorporate" Austrian economics, discard their monetary theories, which he argued were flawed, and "reconsider the nature and justification of the economic categories of interest, rent and profit."[56] Today, most who call themselves individualist anarchists follow Rothbard's economics.[57] [edit] Social anarchismMain article: Social anarchism Social anarchism is an umbrella term used to identify a broad category of anarchism independent of individualist anarchism.[22] Where individualist forms of anarchism emphasize personal autonomy and the rational nature of human beings, social anarchism sees "individual freedom as conceptually connected with social equality and emphasize community and mutual aid."[58] Social anarchism is used to specifically describe anarchist tendencies within anarchism that have an emphasis on the communitarian and cooperative aspects of anarchist theory and practice. Social anarchism includes (but is not limited to) collectivist anarchism, anarcho-communism, libertarian socialism, anarcho-syndicalism and social ecology.[22] [edit] Collectivist anarchismMain article: Collectivist anarchism  Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary[59] form of anarchism most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, Johann Most and the anti-authoritarian section of the First International (1864–1876).[60] Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be initiated by small cohesive elite group through acts of violence, or "propaganda by the deed," which would inspire the workers to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.[59] Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production, rather than goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.[61] Collective anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, despite Marxism striving for a collectivist stateless society.[62] Some collectivist anarchists do not oppose the use of currency. Some support workers being paid based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase commodities in a communal market.[63] This contrasts with anarcho-communism where wages would be abolished, and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods "to each according to his need." Many modern-day collectivist anarchists hold their form of anarchism as a permanent society rather than a carryover to anarcho-communism or a gift economy. Some collectivist anarchists such as proponents of participatory economics believe in remuneration and a form of credit but do not believe in money or markets. Although Collectivist anarchism shares many similarities with Anarchist communism there are also many key differences between them. For example collectivist anarchists believe that the economy and most or all property should be collectively owned by society while anarchist communists by contrast believe that the concept of ownership should be rejected by society and replaced with the concept of usage.[64] Also Collectivist anarchists often favor using a form of currency to compensate workers according to the amount of time spent contributing to society and production while Anarcho-communists believe that currency and wages should be abolished all together and goods should be distributed "to each according to his or her need". [edit] Anarchist communismMain article: Anarchist communism  Anarchist communists propose that a society composed of a number of self-governing communes with collective use of the means of production, with direct democracy as the political organizational form, and related to other communes through federation would be the freest form of social organisation.[65] However, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy.[66] Joseph Déjacque was an early anarchist communist and the first person to describe himself as "libertarian".[67] Other important anarchist communists include Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Alexander Berkman and Errico Malatesta. In anarchist communism, individuals would not receive direct compensation for labour (through sharing of profits or payment), but would instead have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.[68] Kropotkin, on the basis of his biological research and experimentation, believed that humans and human society are more inclined towards efforts for mutual benefit than toward competition and strife.[69] Kropotkin believed that private property was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition,[70][71] but he only opposed ownership, not possession.[72] Some anarcho-syndicalists saw anarchist communism as their objective; for example, the Spanish CNT adopted Isaac Puente's 1932 El comunismo libertario[65] as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society. Platformism is an anarchist communist tendency in the tradition of Nestor Makhno who argued for the "vital need of an organization which, having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement, would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement."[73] Some anarcho-communists are strongly influenced by radical individualist and egoist philosophy and believe that anarcho-communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Forms of libertarian communism such as Situationism are strongly Egoist in nature.[74] Anarcho-communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own, as shown in books of hers such as Anarchism And Other Essays.[75] [edit] Anarcho-syndicalismMain articles: Syndicalism and Anarcho-syndicalism  In the early twentieth century anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism. More heavily focused on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by the workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles of syndicalism include workers' solidarity, direct action (such as general strikes and workplace recuperations), and workers' self-management. Anarcho-syndicalism and other branches of anarchism are not mutually exclusive: anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchism. Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a non-hierarchical anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. According to An Anarchist FAQ, anarcho-syndicalist economic systems often take the form of either a collectivist anarchist economic system or a anarcho-communist economic system.[22] Rudolf Rocker is considered a leading anarcho-syndicalist theorist.[22] He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism.[76] Although more frequently associated with labor struggles of the early twentieth century (particularly in France and Spain), many syndicalist organizations are active today, including the SAC in Sweden, the USI in Italy, and the CNT in Spain. A number of these organizations are united across national borders by membership in the International Workers Association. [edit] Contemporary developmentsMain article: Contemporary anarchism Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,[77] a number of new movements and schools have appeared. Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber has posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits of the last century" contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and cultural-critical ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.[4] [edit] Contemporary free market anarchism[edit] Market left-libertarianismMain article: left-libertarianism Mutualism, initially developed in the 19th century, has reemerged in the 21st century, incorporating modern economic ideas such as marginal utility theory. Kevin A. Carson's book Studies in Mutualist Political Economy was influential in this regard, updating the labor theory of value in response to Austrian economics. Contemporary mutualists are among those involved in the Alliance of the Libertarian Left and in the Voluntary Cooperation Movement. Agorism, an anarchist tendency founded by Samuel Edward Konkin III, advocates counter-economics – working in untaxed black or grey markets and boycotting as much as possible the unfree taxed market – with the intended result that private voluntary institutions emerge and out-compete statist ones. Geoanarchism, an anarchist form of Henry George's philosophy, is considered left-libertarian because it assumes land to be initially owned in common, so that when land is privately appropriated the proprietor pays rent to the community. These philosophies share similar concerns and are collectively known as left-libertarianism.[78] [edit] Anarcho-capitalismMain articles: Anarcho-capitalism and Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism Anarcho-capitalism is a political philosophy (whose status within anarchism is disputed[79]) which has a minor following in the United States.[80] It is "based on a belief in the freedom to own private property, a rejection of any form of governmental authority or intervention, and the upholding of the competitive free market as the main mechanism for social interaction."[81] Anarcho-capitalists, advocate for all services, including law enforcement and security, to be performed by multiple private providers all competing for business, rather than by a monopolist state agency funded by taxation. Anarcho-capitalism's proponents include Murray Rothbard, David D. Friedman, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, and Walter Block. [edit] AutarchismMain article: Autarchism Autarchism is a philosophy subscribed to by Robert LeFevre, who stated “Autarchy is self-rule. It means that each person rules himself, and no other.”[82] Autarchism rejects compulsory government and supports "private capitalism."[83] [edit] Anarcha-feminismMain article: Anarcha-feminism  Anarcha-feminism (occasionally called anarcho-feminism) is a form of anarchism that synthesizes radical feminism and anarchism that views patriarchy (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of involuntary hierarchy which anarchists often oppose. Anarcha-feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons, Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender roles. Anarcha-feminists are especially critical of marriage. For instance, the feminist anarchist Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement... "[woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life."[84] Anarcha-feminists also often criticize the views of some of the traditional anarchists such as Mikhail Bakunin who have believed that patriarchy is only a minor problem and is dependent only on the existence of the state and capitalism and will disappear soon after such institutions are abolished. Anarcha-feminists by contrast view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. As Susan Brown puts it, "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".[85] [edit] Green anarchismMain article: Green Anarchism  Green anarchism is a school of anarchism that emphasizes the protection of the environment. Green anarchists can be broadly divided into two categories. Green anarchists, such as John Zerzan and Theodore Kaczynski, who see modern civilization and technology (as well as agriculture, in the case of Anarcho-Primitivists) as inherently harmful. And green anarchists, such as Murray Bookchin and Alan Carter, see technology as morally neutral or even as beneficial to the development of a green anarchist society.[86] It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique technology and development have alienated people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the Luddites and the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, although when primitivism emerged it was influenced more directly by the works of theorists such as the Frankfurt School, including Theodor Adorno and Herbert Marcuse; anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Richard Lee; and others such as Lewis Mumford, Jean Baudrillard and Gary Snyder. Many advocates of green anarchism and primitivism consider Fredy Perlman as the modern progenitor of their views. Some green anarchists, identifying themselves as anarcho-primitivists, advocate a complete process of 'rewilding' and a return to nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles while many green anarchists only wish to see an end to industrial society and do not necessarily oppose domestication or agriculture. Still, many green anarchists decide to skirt these issues entirely, focusing not on a post-revolutionary future, but on defense of the earth and social revolution in the present. Today there is disagreement between Primitivists and followers of more traditional forms of anarchism, such as the social ecology of Murray Bookchin and socialist forms of anarchism which advocate class struggle, although many green anarchists do advocate class struggle. [edit] Post-left anarchyPost-left anarchy seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, socialists, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of ideology in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes (anti-war, anti-nuclear, etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: the magazine Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed and its editor Jason McQuinn, Bob Black, Hakim Bey and others. [edit] Post-anarchismThe term post-anarchism was originated by Saul Newman, and first received popular attention in his book From Bakunin to Lacan to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including post-modernism, autonomism, post-left anarchy, situationism, post-colonialism and Zapatismo. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or should not be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include Saul Newman, Todd May, Lewis Call, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. [edit] Insurrectionary anarchismInsurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice and tendency within the anarchist movement which opposes formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists informal organization and small affinity group based organization. Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack, permanent conflict with class society, and a refusal to dialog or compromise with class enemies. While most insurrectionists share a vision for society with anarcho-communists (though many do not), they differ widely in that they believe in insurrection now to achieve those goals. [edit] Religious anarchismFor more details on this topic, see Anarchism and religion. Religious anarchism refers to a set of related anarchist ideologies that are inspired by the teachings of (organized) religions, however many anarchist have traditionally been skeptical of and opposed to organized religion.[87] Many different religions have served as inspiration for religious forms of anarchism, most notably Christianity; Christian anarchists believe that biblical teachings give credence to anarchist philosophy. Non-Christian forms of religious anarchism include Buddhist anarchism, Jewish anarchism and most recently Neopaganism. Neopaganism focuses on the sanctity of the environment and equality, and is often of a decentralized nature. This led to a number of Neopagan-inspired anarchists, one of the most prominent of which is Starhawk, who writes extensively about both spirituality and activism. [edit] Christian anarchismChristian anarchism is a form of religious anarchism that seeks to combine anarchism with Christianity, claiming that anarchism is justified by the teachings of Jesus Christ. Early Christian communities have been described by Christian anarchists and some historians as possessing anarcho-communist characteristics. Christian anarchists such as Ammon Hennacy and Keith Akers believe that the teachings of Paul of Tarsus caused a shift from the earlier more egalitarian and anarchistic teachings of Jesus Christ and suggest that Christians should look at returning to pre-Pauline Christianity. [edit] Anarchism without adjectivesMain article: Anarchism without adjectives Anarchism without adjectives, in the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, "referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others, ... [it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools".[88] Anarchism without adjectives emphasizes harmony between various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs. The expression was coined by Cuban-born Fernando Tarrida del Mármol, who used it in Barcelona in November 1889 as a call for tolerance, after being troubled by the "bitter debates" between the different movements.[89] Rudolf Rocker said that the different types of anarchism presented "only different methods of economy, the practical possibilities of which have yet to be tested, and that the first objective is to secure the personal and social freedom of men no matter upon which economics basis this is to be accomplished."[90] Voltairine de Cleyre was an anarchist without adjectives who initially identified herself as an individualist anarchist but later espoused a collectivist form of anarchism,[91] while refusing to identify herself with any of the contemporary schools. She commented that "Socialism and Communism both demand a degree of joint effort and administration which would beget more regulation than is wholly consistent with ideal Anarchism; Individualism and Mutualism, resting upon property, involve a development of the private policeman not at all compatible with my notion of freedom" although she stopped short of denouncing these tendencies as un-anarchistic.[92] Errico Malatesta was another proponent of anarchism without adjectives, stating that "[i]t is not right for us, to say the least, to fall into strife over mere hypotheses."[93] Fred Woodworth is a contemporary anarchist without adjectives.[94] [edit] Related theories
[edit] References
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