This article is about the Arabic definite article, Al-; not to be confused with the word "Āl" or "Ahl" (meaning "family")

Al- (Arabic: الـ‎, also transliterated as el- and in some cases il- and ul-) is the definite article in the Arabic language; a particle (ḥarf) whose function is to render the noun on which it is prefixed definite. For example, the word كتاب “kitāb” (book) can be made definite by prefixing it with Al-, resulting in الكتاب “Al-kitāb” (the book). Consequently, Al- is typically translated as the in English.

Unlike most other particles in Arabic, Al- is always prefixed to another word and it never stands alone. Consequently, most dictionaries will not list it as a separate word, and it is almost invariably ignored in collation. By the same token, Al- is not a permanent component of the word to which it is prefixed. It is added and removed to toggle between the definiteness and indefiniteness of the word.

As a particle, Al- does not inflect at all – not for gender, plurality, grammatical case, etc.

Contents 1 Overview 2 Etymology 2.1 Al- comes from the Arabic Lā 2.2 Al- comes from the Hebrew definite article, Hā 2.3 Al- comes from a proto-Semitic particle 3 Phonology 3.1 The ‘’Hamza’’ in Al- 3.2 The ‘’Lām’’ in Al- 3.3 The vowels in Al- 3.4 Separating Al- from its host word 4 Lexicology 4.1 Definiteness 4.2 Class Nouns 4.3 Encompassing a Genus 4.4 Indicating Presence 4.5 Entry on Names 4.6 Extra 4.7 Miscellaneous 5 Grammar 5.1 Entry on Particles (Ḥarf) and Verbs (Ficl) 5.2 Entry on Nouns (Ism) 5.2.1 Prohibited Entry 5.2.1.1 Nouns That Do Not Inflect for Definiteness 5.2.1.2 Already Definite Nouns 5.2.1.3 The Genitival Construction (Iḍāfa) 5.2.1.4 Vocation 5.2.1.5 Nunation (Tanwīn) 5.2.2 Necessary Entry 5.2.3 Al- on Numbers 5.2.4 Al- on Participles 5.2.5 Effects of Al- on Grammatical Case 5.2.6 Allah 6 See also 7 External links 8 Notes 9 References

[edit] Overview

To put Al- into perspective, there are many ways in which Arabic words can be made definite. These include the use of personal pronouns like “me”, the use of proper nouns like “Saudi Arabia”, demonstrative pronouns like “this man”, relative pronouns like “the man who ...”, vocation like “o man”, possession like “my man”, and of course the definite article like “the man”^[1]. Apart from possession, prefixing a noun with Al- is the weakest form of definiteness^[2]. That is, saying “the man” does not define the man being referred to as clearly as saying “this man”, for example.

Arabic doesn't have an indefinite article like the English a or an. A noun, adjective, adverb, etc is considered indefinite if is not otherwise definite^[3].

[edit] Etymology

The etymology of Al- is the study of how it developed and how it changed over time. There are several major opinions in regards to the origins of the Arabic definite article.

[edit] Al- comes from the Arabic Lā

According to Jacob Barth, Al- comes directly from the Arabic negating particle, لا “Lā”^[4]. He conjectures that Lā became Al- through a process of metathesis. That is to say, the Lām and the Aleph swapped positions. It is noteworthy that the negation connoted by Lā and the definiteness connoted by Al- are in stark contrast to each other.

Barth also asserts that Lā could have resulted in Al- through a process of syncope. That is to say, The Aleph in Lā and the vowel over the Lām were dropped – resulting in a sukoon over the Lām – and a volatile/elidable Hamza was added to compensate.

David Testen argues against both of these explanations. He says that there is no corroboratory evidence for either metathesis or syncope.

[edit] Al- comes from the Hebrew definite article, Hā

A popular theory is that Al- comes from the Hebrew definite article, ה־ “Hā”^[5]. This theory is based primarily on the fact that the two share many similarities. Both particles are prefixed to nouns and they both geminate with certain following letters^[6]. Moreover, both particles are not prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction^[7]. And finally, both are prefixed to relative clauses^[8].

There is, however, a theory in the etymology of Al- that states that Al- comes from the same root as the asseverative-cum-precative particle, لـَ “La” – this is the La that enters upon the beginning of nominal sentences for emphasis^[9]. This mitigates the reliability of the above theory since the Hebrew Hā and the Arabic La have very little in common.

It is also argued that Hebrew is not the only Semitic language whose definite article shares similarities with Al-^[10]. That being the case, it is argued that Al- should not be directly linked to Hā, but that both of these particles should be directly linked to an even earlier antecedent.

[edit] Al- comes from a proto-Semitic particle

According to David Testen, many north- and south-west Semitic languages have particles that bear similarities to Al-^[11]. With this fact, he posits that Al- has a proto-Semitic antecedent.

There are three major theories regarding which proto-Semitic particle is the antecedent of Al-^[12].

• Hal
• Ha
• ‘a

David Testen and Jacob Weingreen state that هل۔/הל־ “Hal” is the correct antecedent. Supporters of this theory sometimes cite the Arabic word 'this': هذا “hadhā”, which, when combined with a definite phrase, has been known to become shortened from هذا البيت “hadhā al-bayt” (this house) to هلبيت “hal-bayt”.

Weingreen also states that the original form of the Hebrew Hā was, in fact, Hal^[13]. Hebrew, then, dropped the final L to achieve Hā and Arabic softened the H to a Hamza to achieve Al-^[14].

Some grammarians argue against the citation of “hal-bayt”, stating that it is merely a shortening of the demonstrative pronoun.

[edit] Phonology

The phonology of Al- is the study of its constituent letters and vowels, and of its pronunciation in different dialects and in different lexical circumstances.

[edit] The ‘’Hamza’’ in Al-

A classical (and largely one sided) debate in regards to Al- is whether the Hamza is volatile or not. The majority opinion is that of Sibawayh (d. ca. 797) who considers the Hamza volatile^[15]. In his opinion, neither is the Hamza part of Al-, nor does it contribute to the definiteness of the following word.

Khalīl, Ibn Keisān, and Akhfash, on the other hand, consider the Hamza to be non-volatile^[16]. There is a further debate amongst the proponents of this second theory. Some consider the Hamza non-volatile and they assert that it contributes to the definiteness of the following word. Others assert that the Hamza contributes to the definiteness of the following word, but it is still volatile^[17].

In his defence, Khalīl argues that when a word prefixed with Al- is preceded by the interrogative Hamza, the two Hamza mix^[18]. For example, when the word الآن “al-āna” (now) is prefixed with it, the result is آلآن “āl-āna”. Clearly, the Hamza of Al- does not drop in this case even though there is no further purpose for it.

Khalīl further argues that the only reason the Hamza in Al- is ever dropped is not because it is volatile, but due to excessive usage. When asked why the Lām in Al- wasn’t simply given a vowel if it so heavily used and needs to be easier to pronounce, followers of Khalīl give the following response. Had the Lām been given a Fatha, it would have been confused with the asseverative-cum-precative particle^[19]. Had it been given a Kasra, it would have been confused with the genitival particle^[20]. And it could not have been given a Damma in fear of the following vowel being a Kasra or Damma (which would result in awkward pronunciations as in لإبل “lu-ibil” or لعنق “lu-^cunuq”)^[21].

Despite the myriad of proofs for the argument, in most classical grammatical camps and in modern Arabic, the opinion of Sibawayh is often taken as an axiomatic fact^[22]. There are many proofs and counter-proofs, but the overarching argument in favour of this opinion is as follows. The Lām in Al- is the only Lām particle in the language with a sukoon (to avoid confusion, as mentioned). Hence it requires a volatile Hamza^[23]. Moreover, Al- is a particle and Arabic particles do not drop letters (without losing their meanings or connotations). Yet we see the Hamza in Al- dropping all the time. Therefore it must be volatile, otherwise Al- would lose its ability to render the following word definite^[24].

Consequently, it turns out that the Hamza in Al- is considered the only volatile Hamza in the language that has a Fatha vowel.

[edit] The ‘’Lām’’ in Al-

In very early Semitic languages, definiteness was achieved through gemination of the first letter in a word^[25]. For example, the word “kitāb” would be made definite by “ak-kitāb”. An additional benefit of this construction was to connote ‘determination’^[26]. The Lām in the Arabic Al- was thus a result of a dissimilation process^[27].

In Arabic, this gemination occurs when the word to which Al- is prefixed begins with one of the fourteen sun letters ^[28]. 12 of these letters (including Lām) are originally designed to geminate. Ḍād and Shīn have been included due to their similarities in pronunciation with Lām and Ṭā, respectively^[29]. For example, the word الرجل “al-rajul” (the man) is actually pronounced “ar-rajul”. Notice that the Lām is written but not pronounced.

In more modern dialects, the sun letters have been extended to include the velars, Gīm and Kāf^[30].

A final point to note is that the ancient tribe of B. Hamīr replace the Lām in Al- with Mīm. The Prophet of Islam is recorded to have uttered the following words in that dialect^[31]:

لَيْسَ مِنِ امْبِرٍّ امْصِيامُ في امْسَفَرِ

[edit] The vowels in Al-

Regardless of whether the Hamza in Al- is volatile or not, it is read with a Fatha when beginning speech with the definite article. For example, if one vocalizes the word البيت (the house) after a pause, it will be pronounced “al-beit”. In fact, the Hamza in Al- is largely considered to be the only volatile Hamza that has a Fatha vowel.

If, however, Al- is vocalized in the middle of speech, the Hamza will be dropped in pronunciation. As a result, the vowel preceding the definite article will be linked to the Lām of Al-. For example, بابُ البيت (vocalized without any pauses) is pronounced “bābu l-beit”, بابَ البيت is pronounced “bāba l-beit”, and بابِ البيت is pronounced “bābi l-beit”.

If the word onto which Al- is prefixed starts with a Hamza, then the vowel from that Hamza may transfer to the Lām of Al-, after which the Hamza will drop in pronunciation^[32]. See #Allah for an example. If this Hamza is volatile, this option becomes an obligation. An example is in the phrase بِئْشَ الإسْمُ “bi’sa al-ismu”. This phrase is read as بِئْشَ الاِسْمُ “bi’sa lismu” (Qur’an 49:11). This is a rule relating to Hamza, and not in direct relation to Al-. Moreover, it is a rare occurrence and is almost never applied in spoken varieties of modern or classical Arabic.

[edit] Separating Al- from its host word

Al- has been recorded to separate from its host word as in the following couplet^[33]:

دَعْ ذا وَعَجِّلْ ذا وَأَلْحِقْنا بِذالْ – بِالشَحْمِ إِنّا قَدْ مَلِلْناهُ بَجَلْ

The Al- in بذال has been recorded both with and without the Aleph. It has been stripped from its host, شحم, due to the metre of the couplet. It has then been repeated in the second half of the couplet reattached to its host^[34]. This is a very rare occurrence and is only recorded in poetry.

[edit] Lexicology

[edit] Definiteness

The primary and most profuse function of Al- is to render the following word definite. This is known as تعريف العهد. This function is of two types^[35]:

• ذكري: when the word being referred to has already been mentioned. An example is found in the word ‘messenger’ in “... We had sent to Pharaoh a messenger. But Pharaoh disobeyed the messenger ...” (Qur’an 73:15-6).
• ذهني: when the word being referred to is understood by the listener. An example is found in the word ‘battle’ in “The battle is getting worse; I think we should retreat.”

There is also a special type of ذهني known as “the Al- for غلبة”. The noun on which the Al- is prefixed, in this case, is never explicitly mentioned but the listener knows what is being referred to^[36]. For example, the word الكتاب “al-kitāb” (the book) may actually refer to the classical book of Arabic grammar written by Sibawayh. Whenever grammarians talk about ‘the book’, this is what they mean and it is always understood without explanation.

[edit] Class Nouns

One of the functions of Al- is to render the noun onto which it is prefixed a class noun^[37]. For example, the word الأسد “al-asad” can mean ‘the lion’, referring to a specific lion, or ‘the lion’ in the sense ‘the lion is a dangerous animal’.

Notice that the meaning connoted by this function of Al- is indefinite, which is in stark contrast with the primary function of the definite article. Because of this meaning, the noun following Al- will be grammatically indefinite and one may, for example, modify the noun without the use of a relative pronoun^[38]. An example of this is seen in the following couplet of poetry:

وَلَقَدْ أَمُرُّ عَلى اللَئيمِ يَسُبُّني – فَمَضَيْتُ ثُمَّتَ قُلْتُ لا يَعْنيني

[edit] Encompassing a Genus

Al- may be used to encompass all the individuals of a genus^[39]. For example, الأسد “al-asad” can be used to mean ‘all lions’. This function is called استغراق. One is encouraged to use caution when employing this form of Al- as it may be confused with its other meanings.

In order for Al- to be in this capacity, it is necessary that it be interchangeable with the word كل “kull” (all)^[40]. Some classical grammarians assert that this “kull” may be figurative, in which case Al-, in this capacity, would be a form of exaggeration^[41].

The most well known use of Al- in this meaning occurs twice in the Qur’anic verse 1:1, الحمد لله رب العالمين (all praise is due to Allah, lord of all the worlds).

[edit] Indicating Presence

Al- is often used in words to indicate the presence of something^[42]. For example, اليوم “al-yowm” means ‘this day’ i.e. ‘today’. In modern Arabic, this function is largely idiomatic and doesn’t carry over to new words.

[edit] Entry on Names

Al- may enter upon names that are derived from Arabic nouns. This function is known as لمح الصفة. The purpose of doing this is to indicate towards the meaning of the one named^[43]. For example, the name عديل ‘’^cAdīl’’ (meaning ‘just’) may be read العديل “al- ^cAdīl” to allude to the fact that ^cAdīl is a just person.

In modern Arabic, however, this type of Al- is largely idiomatic. That is to say, names traditionally prefixed with Al- are kept as such and names without Al- are also kept as such; the connotation of this Al- is ignored.

When it comes to alphabetic ordering, some sources will list names according to the Al- while others will ignore it.

[edit] Extra

Al- is sometimes prefixed to words without giving any grammatical benefit. This may occur in poetry, in which case the purpose may be to maintain metre, rhythm, or rhyme.

It may also occur elsewhere to give a rhetorical benefit. For example, the Al- attached to the relative pronoun الذي “al-ladhī” (that/which/etc) is considered to be extra because relative pronouns are already definite and there is no use for the Al-^[44]. Al- is perpetually and necessarily attached to this word in most Arabic dialects because, without it, the word would read لذي “ladhī” which sounds awkward^[45]. Thus its purpose is not a lexical or grammatical one, but a rhetorical one.

In the above example, the extra Al- is necessary. There are other cases where it is extra but not necessary. An example is in the following phrase^[46]:

ادخلوا الأول فالأول

The word أول “awwal” (first) is considered حال “Ḥāl” (a type of object in grammar) in the above phrase. This type of object is typically indefinite according to most classical and modern grammarians^[47]. So the Al- attached to it is unnecessarily extra.

[edit] Miscellaneous

• Jamīl Shāmi asserts that there is a type of Al- which connotes the essence of something^[42]. For example, “... And we made from water every living thing ...” (Qur’an 21:30) can be translated as “... And we made from the essence of water (i.e., from the compound H₂O) every living thing ....”
• Shāmi also cites a usage of Al- as an interrogative particle^[48]. For example, ال فعلت “al fa^calta” (did you do it?). Notice that the Al- stands alone and un-prefixed here.

[edit] Grammar

[edit] Entry on Particles (Ḥarf) and Verbs (Fi^cl)

Al- is a particle (ḥarf)^[49] in the Arabic language. Like most (but not all) particles, it is not prefixed to other particles. That is because particles are never in need of any of the lexical meanings or grammatical inflections provided by Al-.

Similarly, Al- is not prefixed to verbs. However, it has been seen on verbs in poetry, as in the following couplets^[50], which belong to Dhu Al-Kharq Al-Tahawi (ذو الخرق الطهوي):

يقول الخَنى وأبغَضُ العُجْمِ ناطقا – الى ربنا موتُ الحِمارِ اليُجَدّعُ

ويَستخرج اليَرْبوعَ مِن نافِقائِه – ومِن جُحْرِه بالشيحَةِ اليَتقصّعُ

Several opinions exist to explain this aberrant Al-. The following is a precis of different Arabic scholars' views as given in Khizanat Al-Adab. Al- is a relative pronoun similar to allathi (الذي), allati (التي), etc. in Arabic, and this is the view of Ibn Hisham and Al-Akhfash^[51]. This opinion is in harmony with the form of the general relative pronoun (alli,illi,al) in most Arabic dialects nowadays. If this view is correct Al- doesn't follow the sun and moon letters rule.

When Al- occurs in places where we would not normally expect it, it is considered extra as far as grammar and lexicology are concerned. This is the view of Al-Kisa'i^[51].

Al- is used by the poet to complete the meter of the verse under poetic license. This is the view of Ibn Malik the author of Alfiyyat Ibn Malik. This view is rejected by the author of the Khizanat Al-Adab^[51].

[edit] Entry on Nouns (Ism)

The term "noun" and "Ism" have been used synonymously in this section

Because Ism require the functions provided by Al- (namely definiteness), Al- enters upon them. Ism, as defined in classical Arabic grammar, includes all parts of speech save particles and verbs – nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc.

As a general rule, Al- may be prefixed to any Ism, regardless of gender, plurality, grammatical case, etc. However, this rule has some pathological caveats. That is, there are some Ism upon which Al- may never enter, and there are others upon which Al- must always enter.

[edit] Prohibited Entry

[edit] Nouns That Do Not Inflect for Definiteness

The definite article, Al-, is not typically prefixed to nouns that do not inflect for definiteness. Examples include the interrogative مَن “man” (who).

[edit] Already Definite Nouns

The definite article, Al-, is not typically prefixed to nouns that are already definite^[52]. Examples include personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nouns already prefixed with Al-, etc.

Exceptions to this include the entry of Al- on the relative pronoun الذي (see #Extra) and entry on proper nouns (see #Entry on Names). As a concrete example, Al- has been recorded to enter upon a demonstrative pronoun as in the following poetic verse^[53]:

فإن الأولاء يعلمونكَ مِنهمُ

[edit] The Genitival Construction (Iḍāfa)

Al- is not prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction (Iḍāfa)^[54]. For example, in شوارع المدينة “shawāri^c al-medina” (the city’s streets) the word شوارع is a non-final noun in the genitival construction. Hence it cannot be prefixed with Al- (it is already definite by virtue of the construction).

Exceptions to this include genitival constructions where the first noun is a participle and the second noun is its object^[55]. This can be done if one of the following conditions is met^[56].

• the first noun is dual; e.g. الضاربا زيد
• the first noun is sound masculine plural; e.g. الضاربو زيد
• the second noun also has Al-; e.g. الضارب الرجل
• the second noun is the first noun of another genitival construction, and the second noun in this other construction has Al-; e.g. الضارب رأسِ الرجلِ
• the second noun is suffixed to a pronoun which refers to a noun that has Al-; e.g. مررتُ بالرجل الضاربِ غلامِه

Al- has also been seen in poetic verses prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction. An example is in the following couplet^[48]:

مِن القوم الرسولُ الله منهم – لهم دانَتْ رِقابُ بني مَعَدٍّ

Furthermore, the grammatical camp of Kufa allows Al- on the first noun in a genitival construction if it is a number^[57]. For example, the phrase ثلاثة اقلام “thalāthat aqlām” (three pens) may be read الثلاثة اقلام “ath-thalāthat aqlām”.

[edit] Vocation

According to the Basra camp of classical grammar, Al- does not typically follow the particles of vocation^[58]. For example, one will not say يا الرجل “yā ar-rajul” (O the man).

The proponents of the Basra camp give two exceptions.

• the word “Allah”; one may say يا الله “yā Allah” (O God) with or without pronouncing the Hamza in “Allah”^[59].
• direct quotation; one may say, for example, يا الحسن “yā Al-Ḥasan” (O Al-Hasan) to someone named Al-Hasan^[60].

However, the Kufa camp of classical grammar, as well as many modern grammarians, allow the entry of Al- on the object of vocation almost unconditionally^[61]. An example is given in the following couplet of poetry^[62]:

مِن أجْلِكِ يا التي تَيَّمْتِ قلبي – وأنتِ بحيلةٌ بالوُدِّ عَنّي

Under this scheme, if the object of vocation is a single word and it is feminine, the particle of vocation will be followed by the particle ايتها “ayyatuha”. And if it is masculine, it will be followed by the particle ايها “ayyuha”^[63].

[edit] Nunation (Tanwīn)

According to the classical grammarians Farrā and Kasā’ī, the overarching purpose of nunation is to differentiate between nouns and verbs^[64]. Thus a noun is given nunation so that it won’t be confused with a verb; for example the name جعفر would have been confused with a quatralateral verb had it not been for nunation. Additionally, we know that Al- does not enter upon verbs. Therefore, when Al- is prefixed to a noun, there is no longer any danger of the noun being confused with a verb, and so the nunation is no longer needed. Hence, no noun has both Al- and nunation simultaneously^[65].

However, there are some types of nunation whose purpose isn’t to differentiate between nouns and verbs. Such types include تنوين ترنم (a type of nunation converted from an Aleph at the end of poetic couplets) and تنوين غالي (a type of nunation used to maintain the metre of a poem).

An example of the first type in conjunction with Al- is found in the following couplet of poetry^[66]:

أقِلّي اللَومَ عاذِلَ والعِتابَن – وقُولي إنْ أصَبْتُ لقد أصابَنْ

And an example of the second type in conjunction with Al- is found in the verse below^[67]:

وقاتِمِ الأعْماقِ خاوي المُخْتَرَقْنْ

[edit] Necessary Entry

There are some nouns that are invariably seen with Al-. Examples include the relative pronoun الذي “al-ladhī” (that/which/etc)^[68].

[edit] Al- on Numbers

Al- may be prefixed to the first part of a number between 11 and 19^[69]. For example, احد عشر “aḥada ^cashar” (eleven) may be read as الاحد عشر “al-aḥada ^cashar”.

In the case of a compound number (21-29, 31-39, ..., 91-99), Al- may be prefixed to both parts. For example, واحد وعشرون “wāḥid wa ^cishrōn” (twenty-one) may be read as الواحد والعشرون “al-wāḥid wal-^cishrōn”^[70].

[edit] Al- on Participles

When Al- is prefixed to a participle, it acts like a relative pronoun^[71]. For the purposes of this rule, participles include اسم فاعل (the active participle), اسم مفعول (the passive participle), الصفة المشبهة (another participle in Arabic), etc. For example, مررت بالراكب خيله. This is translated as “I passed by the man who was riding his steed” as opposed to something like “I passed by the rider of his steed.” Consequently, all the rules of Arabic relative pronouns and their clauses will apply here.

It is widely accepted in Arabic grammar that a participle can carry tense. This tense, however, is typically limited to the present and future. But when we use the above construction, the past can be connoted by the participle as well due to the nature of relative clauses. For example, one may say مررت بالراكب خيله أمس (I passed by the man who was riding his steed yesterday).

Some grammarians, however, say that it is only the past that can be connoted in this construction; the option of connoting the present and future is no longer available. And others say that no tense at all can be connoted^[72].

[edit] Effects of Al- on Grammatical Case

Al- has very few contributions to the grammatical case of a noun. However, it is worth mentioning that it turns second-declension nouns (Gheir Munṣarif) into first declension nouns by allowing the Kasra vowel^[73].

Moreover, Al- brings back the ي letter in an Ism Manqōṣ that is in the nominative or genitive case. Without the Al-, the ي in such nouns is omitted and replaced by nunation.

[edit] Allah

Of special interest is the origins of the word “Allah”. While some scholars trace this word to a Hebrew origin (see El (God)), many modern scholars propose that it was derived from the word الإلـه “al-ilāh” (the god). Proponents of this theory point towards the fact that the Lām in Al- is followed by a Hamza. They say that the Kasara from that Hamza transferred to the Lām and the Hamza itself dropped (see #The vowels in Al-), resulting in الِلـه “alilāh”. Notice here that the volatile Hamza does not drop from pronunciation even though it is no longer required. Then the two Lām geminated, producing الّـه “allāh”. Furthermore, the resulting Lām was emphasized in pronunciation out of reverence for the name of God. And finally, the written word was given a special script and is written as follows: الله.

[edit] See also

Look up ال in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Arabic grammar
• Arabic phonology
• Grammatical particle
• Influence of Arabic on other languages
• Sun and moon letters

[edit] External links

• What's Up With "Al-"? at Slate

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Abu ^cAlī Al-Fārisī, Al-Hasan b. Ahmad (d. 987) (2004). Al-Masā’il Al-Manthōrah. Oman: Dār Oman li An-Nashr wa At-Tawzī^c. 
• Asmar, Rājī (2005). Mu^cjam Al-Adawāt fī Al-Qur’ān al-Karīm. Beirut: Dār Al-Jīl. 
• ^cAţā, Diyāb ^cAbd Al-Jawwād (1985). Hurōf Al-Ma^cānī wa ^cAlāqatuhā bi Al-Hukm al-shar^cī. Cairo: Dār Al-Manār. 
• Abdullah b. ^cAqīl, Bahā Ad-Dīn(d. 1367). Sharh Ibn ^cAqīl ^calā Alfiyyat Ibn Mālik. See Muhyu Ad-Dīn. 
• Baytōshi, Abdullah b. Muhammad (2005). Kifāyat Al-Mu^cānī fī hurōf Al-Ma^cānī. Damascus: Dār Al-Iqrā. 
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